Table 3.
Distribution of variables assessed in the three diagnostic groups (N = 3618)
| Chronic MDD (n = 563) | Non-chronic MDD (n = 1060) | No MDD (n = 1995) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| % or mean (sd) | CD vs. NCD ORc (95CI) | (ref) | % or mean (sd) | No MDD vs. NCD ORc (95CI) | |
| Socio-demographic characteristics | |||||
| Age (yrs) | 51.5 (8.8) | 1.23*** (1.11, 1.37) | 49.7 (8.6) | 51.4 (8.8) | 1.27*** (1.17, 1.37) |
| Sex (female) | 68.6 | 1.22° (0.98, 1.51) | 63.7 | 43.0 | 0.42*** (0.36, 0.49) |
| Swiss nationality | 70.7 | 0.86 (0.68, 1.10) | 72.5 | 69.4 | 0.86° (0.72, 1.03) |
| Low education (compulsory school only) | 19.4 | 1.21 (0.92, 1.60) | 15.6 | 17.2 | 1.13 (0.91, 1.40) |
| Disability pension | 9.8 | 2.27*** (1.50, 3.45) | 4.2 | 2.7 | 0.54** (0.35, 0.81) |
| Low income (< CHF50′000.-/yr) | 33.1 | 1.59*** (1.25, 2.02) | 22.3 | 18.2 | 0.76** (0.63, 0.93) |
| Married | 46.9 | 0.82° (0.66, 1.01) | 52.3 | 66.0 | 1.59*** (1.36, 1.86) |
| Behavioral characteristics | |||||
| Smoking status | |||||
| Current | 32.5 | 1.08 (0.86, 1.34) | 31.6 | 25.2 | 0.72*** (0.61, 0.85) |
| Former | 28.4 | 0.81° (0.64, 1.01) | 32.5 | 32.8 | 0.91 (0.77, 1.07) |
| Physical inactivitya | 48.7 | 1.23° (1.00, 1.52) | 43.4 | 44.3 | 0.97 (0.83, 1.14) |
| Course | |||||
| Suicide attempts | 12.8 | 1.67** (1.19, 2.36) | 7.8 | 2.2 | 0.28*** (0.19, 0.41) |
| GAF score lifetime | 68.2 (10.6) | 0.64*** (0.58, 0.71) | 73.2 (9.6) | 81.8 (9.0) | 2.88*** (2.61, 3.19) |
| GAF score current | 68.7 (17.4) | 0.69*** (0.63, 0.75) | 76.0 (15.3) | 83.8 (10.3) | 1.99*** (1.82, 2.18) |
| Lifetime prevalence of other psychiatric disorders | |||||
| Dysthymia | 5.2 | 1.67* (1.00, 2.79) | 3.1 | 3.6 | 1.33 (0.87, 2.04) |
| Any anxiety disorderb | 28.3 | 1.41** (1.11, 1.79) | 21.9 | 11.3 | 0.50*** (0.41, 0.62) |
| Generalized anxiety disorder | 5.7 | 2.37** (1.38, 4.08) | 2.3 | 1.0 | 0.41** (0.22, 0.75) |
| Panic disorder | 4.8 | 1.81* (1.06, 3.11) | 2.8 | 1.8 | 0.76 (0.46, 1.27) |
| Agoraphobia | 5.0 | 0.97 (0.60, 1.56) | 4.9 | 2.5 | 0.59* (0.40, 0.89) |
| Social phobia | 18.8 | 1.27° (0.96, 1.66) | 15.7 | 7.5 | 0.48*** (0.38, 0.61) |
| PTSD | 9.7 | 1.90** (1.28, 2.83) | 5.1 | 1.4 | 0.29*** (0.18, 0.46) |
| Obsessive–compulsive disorder | 2.5 | 1.72 (0.83, 3.58) | 1.5 | 0.5 | 0.37* (0.16, 0.82) |
| Alcohol abuse or dependence | 12.0 | 1.15 (0.83, 1.60) | 11.6 | 11.3 | 0.71** (0.55, 0.91) |
| Illicit substance abuse or dependence | 6.1 | 0.87 (0.57, 1.32) | 8.3 | 5.0 | 0.52*** (0.38, 0.71) |
| Healthcare use | |||||
| Consultation with aprofessional | 82.2 | 1.76*** (1.36, 2.28) | 72.4 | 26.2 | 0.15*** (0.12, 0.17) |
| Any medication, % | 66.6 | 1.32* (1.06, 1.64) | 58.8 | 16.7 | 0.15*** (0.12, 0.17) |
| Antidepressants | 48.1 | 1.49*** (1.21, 1.84) | 37.5 | 6.3 | 0.12*** (0.10, 0.15) |
| Antipsychotics | 3.6 | 1.46 (0.80, 2.66) | 2.4 | 0.4 | 0.13*** (0.05, 0.30) |
| Mood stabilizers | 0.9 | 0.89 (0.30, 2.65) | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.15** (0.04, 0.57) |
| Sedatives | 48.8 | 1.14 (0.93, 1.41) | 44.1 | 13.1 | 0.19*** (0.16, 0.23) |
| Hospitalization | 11.7 | 1.35° (0.96, 1.89) | 8.7 | 2.4 | 0.24*** (0.16, 0.34) |
| Familial history of mood disorders | |||||
| Bipolar disorder | 4.2 | 1.21 (0.70, 2.09) | 3.7 | 2.2 | 0.64° (0.40, 1.02) |
| MDD | 45.0 | 0.84 (0.68, 1.04) | 49.7 | 32.3 | 0.53*** (0.45, 0.63) |
| Personality characteristics | |||||
| Neuroticism | 13.0 (5.3) | 1.50*** (1.33, 1.70) | 11.0 (5.5) | 7.3 (4.8) | 0.49*** (0.44, 0.54) |
| Extraversion | 9.8 (4.9) | 0.77*** (0.68, 0.87) | 11.0 (4.7) | 11.6 (4.6) | 1.13** (1.03, 1.23) |
| Coping | |||||
| Emotion-focused coping | 10.2 (3.8) | 1.33*** (1.18, 1.51) | 9.3 (3.8) | 7.6 (3.6) | 0.70*** (0.63, 0.77) |
| Help-seeking behavior | 2.9 (2.2) | 0.77*** (0.67, 0.88) | 3.5 (2.1) | 3.0 (2.1) | 0.90* (0.82, 0.98) |
| Problem-focused coping | 7.8 (1.8) | 1.06 (0.94, 1.20) | 7.6 (1.8) | 7.7 (1.8) | 1.03 (0.94, 1.13) |
| Life-events | |||||
| Childhood traumatic events | 11.1 | 1.20 (0.86, 1.69) | 9.4 | 5.1 | 0.57*** (0.43, 0.77) |
| Number of any life-events | 13.8 (5.9) | 1.09° (0.98, 1.20) | 13.2 (5.3) | 11.8 (4.7) | 0.73*** (0.67, 0.79) |
| Impact adulthood lifetime events | 602.8 (449.2) | 1.24*** (1.13, 1.35) | 490.0 (335.6) | 329.6 (257.4) | 0.54*** (0.49, 0.59) |
| Cardio-metabolic risk factors | |||||
| Waist circumference (cm) | 87.3 (14.0) | 1.16* (1.04, 1.30) | 85.7 (12.8) | 89.0 (12.9) | 1.00 (0.92, 1.10) |
| Overweight | 47.2 | 1.14 (0.92, 1.41) | 42.9 | 51.4 | 1.09 (0.93, 1.27) |
| Diabetes | 4.8 | 0.92 (0.56, 1.51) | 4.6 | 5.6 | 0.80 (0.56, 1.15) |
| Dyslipidemia | 32.6 | 1.12 (0.89, 1.41) | 29.1 | 33.9 | 0.92 (0.77, 1.09) |
| Hypertension | 31.8 | 1.23° (0.97, 1.57) | 25.4 | 31.7 | 1.05 (0.88, 1.26) |
MDD major depressive disorder; CD chronic MDD, NCD non-chronic MDD, yr year; PTSD post-traumatic stress disorder; sd standard deviation, OR odds ratio, 95CI 95% confidence interval, ref reference
***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05, °p < 0.1
aPhysically active less than 20 min twice a week. bGeneralized anxiety disorder, social phobia, panic disorder, or agoraphobia. cEach line corresponds to one multinomial logistic regression model adjusted for age, sex, education and nationality (Model 1)