Table 1.

Neuropathological mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 long-term effects.

Mechanism	Cellular and Molecular Changes	References
Cytokines and leukocytes cross the BBB	Microglial activation, production of neuroinflammatory mediators	[17,18,19,20,23,24]
Direct viral invasion of microvascular endothelium of the blood-brain barrier	Impaired blood flow in the brain, unclear whether virus enters brain parenchyma via infected endothelium	[28,29,30,40,41]
Entry of viral particles into the brain via the nasal epithelium and olfactory bulb	Neurotoxicity and neuronal loss	[47,48,49]

BBB = blood-brain barrier.