Table 6.
Selected control measures (a full list is available in EFSA PLH Panel, 2018) for pest entry/establishment/spread/impact in relation to currently unregulated hosts and pathways. Control measures are measures that have a direct effect on pest abundance
| Control measure/Risk reduction option (Blue underline = Zenodo doc, Blue = WIP) | RRO summary | Risk element targeted (entry/establishment/spread/impact) |
|---|---|---|
| Require pest freedom | Source host plants from a pest free area, pest free place of production or pest free production site. | Entry/Spread |
| Growing plants in isolation | The host, especially plugs for transplanting, could be grown vegetatively in insect‐proof greenhouses. | Entry/Spread |
| Managed growing conditions | In the US, pest control is based on a combination of cultural practices (mowing, fertilisation and irrigation) and use of tolerant cultivars (see below) in addition to chemical control with insecticides (see below). | Impact |
| Use of resistant and tolerant plant species/Varieties |
Resistant plants are used to restrict the growth and development of a specified pest and/or the damage they cause when compared to susceptible plant varieties under similar environmental conditions and pest pressure. Use of resistant cultivars of St. Augustine grass has been a major component of managing B. insularis in the US. However, 12 years after the first resistant cultivar was introduced most populations of B. insularis in Florida had overcome the resistance (Nagata and Cherry, 2003). Populations in Texas have also overcome host‐plant resistance (Busey, 1995; Cherry and Nagata, 1997; Rangasamy et al., 2009; Reinert, 2008; Reinert et al., 2011). Nevertheless, investigations into resistance (e.g. Youngs et al., 2014) and breeding of new cultivars for resistance to B. insularis has continued (e.g. Milla‐Lewis et al., 2017) Physical properties of resistant cultivars, such as the amount as shoot lignification and the thickness of cell walls around the vascular bundle may reduce stylet penetration (Rangasamy et al., 2009) |
Impact |
| Roguing |
Roguing is defined as the removal of infested plants and/or uninfested host plants in a delimited area Patches and grass around infested patches should be removed. |
Spread/Impact |
| Chemical treatments on crops including reproductive material | When an outbreak of B. insularis is detected, insecticides are required to kill nymphs and adults to try and protect the plants. Because eggs are often resistant to insecticides, multiple insecticide applications may be required for effective population control. The insecticide active substances acephate, chlorpyrifos and lambda‐cyhalothrin were effective against nymphs and adults (Nagata and Cherry, 1999) but frequent use of insecticides in southern Florida (e.g. 6–12 insecticide applications per year (Vázquez et al., 2010) led to the development of insecticide resistance (Cherry and Nagata 2005, 2007) and active ingredients such as deltamethrin, lambda‐cyhalothrin and imidacloprid are no longer effective in US. Resistance to bifenthrin and permethrin has also been reported (Vázquez et al., 2011). Some of these active substances are no longer authorised in the EU. (a) | Spread/Impact |
| Cleaning and disinfection of facilities, tools and machinery |
The physical and chemical cleaning and disinfection of facilities, tools, machinery, transport means, facilities and other accessories. Infested soil could carry eggs, nymphs and adults although without a host, nymphs and adults will not live long. Soil should be cleaned from tools and machinery. Prior to their export machinery and vehicles which have been operated for landscaping purposes are cleaned and free from soil and plant debris |
Entry/Spread |
| Limits on soil | Minimal amounts of soil should be moved with plants for planting. | Entry/Spread |
| Waste management | If roguing is applied, the removed parts should be destroyed (e.g. deep burial) | Spread |
| Post‐entry quarantine and other restrictions of movement in the importing country | Post‐entry quarantine (PEQ) could be used | Entry/Spread |