Fig. 3.

Metabolic reprogramming in macrophages. M1-polarized macrophages primarily depend on glucose and the flux of glucose into lactate, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and nitric oxide (NO) generation for tumour killing after stimulation with the cytokines IFN-γ, TNF and LPS, which involves a cell-intrinsic shift towards aerobic glycolysis, generation of ROS, disruption of the TCA cycle, and inhibition of OXPHOS. M2-polarized macrophages primarily depend on β-oxidation of fatty acids and the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) after stimulation of cytokines IL-4, IL-13, and IL-10. During these processes, some key molecules participate in the metabolic mechanisms including mTOR, HIF-1α, SIRT1, and AKT