Table 4.

Characteristics of the different macrophage subtypes

Phenotype	Stimuli	Markers (human)	Markers (mouse)	Functions
M1	IFN-γ, TNFα, IL-1β, LPS	CD11b, CD11c, CD80, HLA-DR, IL-1β, IL-8, TNFα, IL-12	CD11b, F4/80, CD80, CD86, Ly6c, MHC-II, iNOS, IL-1β, IL-8, TNF-α, IL-12	Proinflammatory, anti-tumour
M2a	IL-4, IL-13	CD206, CD163, IL-10, TGF-β, CCL17, CCL18, CCL22, CCL24	CD163, Arg1, IL-10, TGF-β, CCL17, CCL18, CCL22, CCL24	Anti-inflammatory
M2b	IL-1β, LPS	CD86, IL-10, IL-12, IL-6, TNF-α	IL-10, IL-12, IL-6, TNF-α	Immunoregulation, tumour progression
M2c	IL-10, TGF-β, glucocorticoids	CD163, CD206, IL-10, TGF-β,	Arg1, IL-10, TGF-β,	Angiogenesis, phagocytosis, wound healing
M2d	TLR ligand, LPS, IL-6	IL-10, VEGF	IL-10, VEGF	Tumour progression, immunosuppressive, angiogenesis