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. 2023 Jul 25;14:4473. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-40069-4

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — Data are presented as the estimated coefficients +/− 1.96 times the standard error (95% confidence interval) for the Polygenic Index (PGI) using meta-analysis (circles), Obviously Related Instrumental Variables (ORIV, rhombuses), the default PGI-RC procedure (squares), and the PGI-RC procedure, taking into account uncertainty in the GREML estimates (triangles) in a scenario without genetic nurture, without assortative mating, and varying levels of genetic correlation between the GWAS and prediction samples (a) and between two GWAS samples that are meta-analyzed or used by ORIV (b). The simulations hold constant the Genome-wide Association Study (GWAS) discovery sample such that the resulting meta-analysis PGI has an R² of 15.4%, and the prediction sample size is held fixed at N = 16,000. Between-family analyses only. The dashed line represents the true coefficient. The simulation results are based on 100 replications.