Fig. 4. Kinetics of Li deposition.

a Ionic conductivities for the three electrolytes at different temperatures. b the setup of the three-electrode cell for the EIS test. c Equivalent circuit. d The fitting results of R_ct in LTO85 (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ electrode partially lithiated to 85 mAh g⁻¹) ||LTO65 (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ electrode partially lithiated to 65 mAh g⁻¹) cell using the equivalent circuit shown in (c), the inset of (d) is the Arrhenius behavior of the resistance corresponding to Li⁺ desolvation^12,16,33. e,f The fitting results of R_b and R_interface in Li||Cu cell after deposition (0.5 mA cm⁻², 1.0 mAh cm⁻²), the inset of (f) is the R_SEI of Li||Cu cell.