Effect on cardiovascular system |
• Tachycardia, increased blood pressure, systemic vasodilatation and increased cardiac labor in a dose-dependent manner (Ravi et al., 2018) |
• myocardial infarction, cardiomyopathy, and sudden cardiac death for patients with a history of cardiac diseases (Jouanjus et al., 2011; Frost et al., 2013; Thomas et al., 2014; Tait et al., 2016) |
Effect on respiratory system |
• Inflammation of large airways, increase airway resistance, and injure lung tissue (Sachs et al., 2015; Joshi et al., 2022) |
• Chronic bronchitis or infections associated with the respiratory tract (Hancox et al., 2010; Tashkin and Tan, 2022) |
Psychiatric conditions |
• An increased risk of psychotic disorders following acute and repeated consumption in naive users (Ganesh and D’Souza, 2022; Di Forti et al., 2015; Arseneault et al., 2002; Grotenhermen and Müller-Vahl, 2012) |
• Mood disturbances, mania, psychosis and schizophrenia in case of chronic use (Johnson et al., 2021; Ganesh and D’Souza, 2022; Gibbs et al., 2015) |
• Addiction (Connor et al., 2021) |
Cognitive and CNS alterations |
• Impairment of a wide range of cognitive functions in a dose-relation manner (Broyd et al., 2016; Lorenzetti et al., 2016; Wieghorst et al., 2022) |
• Long-term brain functional and structural alterations (Cousijn et al., 2012; Broyd et al., 2016; Meier et al., 2022) |
• Sedation (Lynch and Campbell, 2011; Borgelt et al., 2013; Kuhathasan et al., 2019) |