Table 3.
Association between change in health-related quality of life (HRQoL) following COVID-19 and sociodemographic characteristics of the cohort (linear mixed models with HRQoL before infection, during infection, and after three months)
| Change in HRQoLa | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Univariate regression models | Multivariable regression model | Multivariable regression model with interaction term(s)b | |
| β (95% CI) p-value | β (95% CI) p-value | β (95% CI) p-value | |
| Time, (REF = before infection) | |||
| • During infection | -9.97 (-10.11; -9.83) < 0.001 | -9.90 (-10.05;- 9.74) < 0.001 | -9.91 (-10.13;-9.85) < 0.001 |
| • After three months | -0.67 (-0.97;-0.36) < 0.001 | -2.57 (-3.62;-1.51) < 0.001 | -2.61 (-3.66;-1.55) < 0.001 |
| Overall effect | p < 0.001 | p = 0.003 | |
| Age, (REF = 26–45) | / | / | |
| • 18–25 | -0.12 (-0.49;0.25) 0.52 | ||
| • 46–65 | -0.16 (-0.56;0.22) 0.39 | ||
| • 66 + | 0.14 (-0.11;0.40) 0.26 | ||
| Overall effect | p = 0.15 | ||
| Sex, Women (REF = Men) | -3.71 (-3.92;-3.49) < 0.001 | -2.16 (-2.36;-1.96) < 0.001 | -2.17 (-2.32;-1.80) < 0.001 |
| Educational level, Secondary school or below (REF = Higher) | -1.87 (-2.12;-1.61) < 0.001 | -1.43 (-1.65;-1.20) < 0.001 | -1.43 (-1.66;-1.20) < 0.001 |
| Chronic disease, Yes (REF = No) | -5.52 (-6.22;-4.49) < 0.001 | -7.39 (-10.99;-3.80) < 0.001 | -7.22 (-7.82;-6.61) < 0.001 |
| Body Mass Index, (REF = Normal, BMI = 18.5–24.9) | |||
| • Overweight (BMI = 25.0–29.9) | -0.22 (-0.45;0.01) 0.05 | -0.08 (-0.30;0.12) 0.41 | -0.02 (-0.27;0.15) 0.61 |
| • Obesity (BMI ≥ 30.0) | -2.62 (-2.94;-2.31) < 0.001 | -1.58 (-1.87;-1.29) < 0.001 | -1.58 (-1.87;-1.29) < 0.001 |
| Overall effect | p = 0.08 | p = 0.08 | p = 0.09 |
| COVID-19 vaccination status at the time of COVID-19 infection, (REF = Complete primary schedule) | |||
| • None | -1.98 (-2.35;- 1.62) < 0.001 | 0.005 | -1.19 (-1.87;-0.42) 0.006 |
| • Partial | -1.73 (-2.49;-0.98) < 0.001 | -1.06 (-1.40;-0.73) 0.002 | -0.88 (-1.81;0.05) 0.07 |
| Overall effect | p < 0.001 | p = 0.006 | p = 0.02 |
| Number of acute COVID-19 symptoms | -5.61 (-6.89;-3.29) < 0.001 | -6.38 (-6.95;-5.27) < 0.001 | -7.21 (-7.93;-6.22) < 0.001 |
| Hospitalisation following COVID-19, Yes (REF = No) | -7.37 (-10.97;-3.78) < 0.001 | -3.31 (-6.71;-0.08) 0.04 | -1.68 (-2.98;-0.38) 0.01 |
| Post COVID-19 condition, Yes (REF = No) | -13.46 (-14.03;-12.59) < 0.001 | -11.26 (-11.89;-10.64) < 0.001 | -11.15 (-11.72;-10.51) < 0.001 |
| PCCa Hospitalisation | |||
| • Yesa Yes | / | / | -5.78 (-11.20;-0.35) 0.03 |
| • Yesa No (REF) | |||
| • No (REF)a Yes | |||
| • No (REF)a No | |||
| Model goodness of fit: AIC | / | 5393.9 | 5165.2 |
aThe HRQoL scores were multiplied by 100 for the modeling to avoid too many decimals in the results
bInteractions between PCC and the vaccination status and number of symptoms during the acute phase of infection were not significant