Table 1.

Roles of signaling pathways involved in regulating mitochondrial function in mitochondrial dysfunction

Signaling pathways	Roles in mitochondrial dysfunction	References
FoxOs	Activate UPS and ALP; upregulate Mul1, influence mitochondrial dynamics (increased mitochondrial fission, accelerated mitochondrial fusion protein degradation), and induce excessive autophagy	[83, 102]
AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α	Promote mitochondrial biosynthesis; involve in the regulation of energy metabolism-related genes; reduce oxidative stress	[103, 105, 106]
IGF-1/PI3K/Akt/mTOR	Promote complex I-driven mitochondrial respiration and supercomplex assembly; regulate the balance between mitochondrial fusion and fission; inhibit oxidative stress and autophagy	[111–114]
JAK/STAT3	Induce mitochondrial respiration; promote mitochondrial apoptosis and autophagy; increase the expression of mitochondria-related proteins (PGC-1α, OPA1, MFN2, cytochrome C)	[14, 117–119]
TGF-β/Smad2/3	Disrupt redox signaling and result in the accumulation of ROS; inhibit mitochondrial biogenesis; downregulate the abundance of PGC-1α, AMPK-α2, TFAM, and mitochondrial enzymes	[121–124]
IKK/NF-κB	Inhibit differentiation and promotes mitochondrial biogenesis; increase the expression of autophagy-related Beclin1; disrupt mitochondrial respiratory function/morphology, induce ROS production, and increase the expression of key mitochondrial genes (SDHA, ANT-1, UCP3, and MFN2)	[125, 126, 128]