TABLE 4.

A summary of well-established and less common analytical techniques used to determine and evaluate the biophysical characteristics of different types of NVPNs.

Technique		Protein nanocages	References
Standard	Dynamic light scattering (DLS)	Dps, E2, encapsulin, ferritin, sHSP and vault	Allen et al. (2002), Flenniken et al. (2003), Choi et al. (2011), Kanekiyo et al. (2013), Molino et al. (2013), Cassidy-Amstutz et al. (2016), Zou et al. (2016a), Kawano et al. (2018), Martín et al. (2022)
		I3-01 and TRAP nanocages	Hsia et al. (2016), Malay et al. (2019), Naskalska et al. (2021)
	Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)	Dps, encapsulin, ferritin, sHSP and vault	Allen et al. (2002), Flenniken et al. (2003), Choi et al. (2011), Kanekiyo et al. (2013), Cassidy-Amstutz et al. (2016), Zou et al. (2016b), Guan et al. (2018), Martín et al. (2022)
		I3-01 and TRAP nanocages	Hsia et al. (2016), Malay et al. (2019), Naskalska et al. (2021)
	Analytical SEC	Dps, encapsulin, ferritin, sHSP and vault	Kim R. et al. (1998), Kim et al. (1998b), Allen et al. (2002), Flenniken et al. (2003), Choi et al. (2011), Kanekiyo et al. (2013), Moon et al. (2014), Wang et al. (2022)
		TIP60 nanocages	Ohara et al. (2023)
Less common	High performance SEC (HP-SEC)	Ferritin	Palombarini et al. (2019), Gu et al. (2020)
	SEC with multi-angle light scattering (SEC-MALS)	TIP60 nanocages	Ohara et al. (2023)
	SEC with right-angle (RALS)/low-angle (LALS) light scattering	TRAP nanocages	Stupka et al. (2022)
	Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS)	Ferritin	Kasyutich et al. (2010), Kim et al. (2011)
		TIP60 nanocages	Ohara et al. (2023)
	Gas-phase electrophoretic mobility molecular analyzer (GEMMA)	Vault	Poderycki et al. (2006)
	Mass spectrometry	E2	Molino et al. (2013)
		Ferritin	Kang et al. (2012), Jeon et al. (2013)
		sHSP	Flenniken et al. (2003)
	Native mass spectrometry	Encapsulin	Cassidy-Amstutz et al. (2016)
		TRAP nanocages	Malay et al. (2019)
	Electron spray mass spectrometry	Ferritin	Santambrogio et al. (2000)
	Liquid chromatography/electrospray mass spectrometry (LC/MS)	Dps	Suci et al. (2010)
		sHSP	Flenniken et al. (2006)
		TRAP nanocages	Malay et al. (2019)
	Electrospray ionization time-of-flight (ESI-TOF) mass spectrometry	Dps	Kang et al. (2008)
		Encapsulin	Moon et al. (2014)
	Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry	E2	Dalmau et al. (2008), Dalmau et al. (2009), Peng and Lim (2011), Peng et al. (2015)
		sHSP	Kawano et al. (2014), Murata et al. (2015)
	Far-UV circular dichroism (FUV-CD) spectroscopy	E2	Jung et al. (2002), Dalmau et al. (2008), Dalmau et al. (2009), Peng and Lim (2011), Ren et al. (2011), Ren et al. (2012), Peng et al. (2015)
		Ferritin	Zou et al. (2016a)
		sHSP	Bova et al. (2002)
	Analytical ultracentrifugation	Ferritin	Kasyutich et al. (2010), Falvo et al. (2013)