Table 1.
Human studies investigating the influence of sex and/or polypeptide hormones on effects induced by single- and double-pulse TMS.
| Reference | Participants’ Number, Gender, Age, Diagnosis | Study Design/Evaluations Schedule (Menstrual Cycle Day) | E2, (pg/mL), P4, T (ng/mL), LU (mIU/mL) Level/Hormone Testing Methods | Outcomes/Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ansdell et al., 2019 [29] | 30 women; 23 ± 2 years; healthy | observational/D2, D14, D21 | E2: 248 ± 129 (D2), 328 ± 160 (D14), 341 ± 186 (D21); P4: 1.3 ± 0.5 (D2), 1.4 ± 0.7 (D14), 4.4 ± 4.6 (D21)/blood | SICI—(1) stronger on D21 than on D2 and on D14, and (2) stronger on D2 than on D14 |
| CSP duration, MEP amplitude—no effects | ||||
| Hattemer et al., 2007 [32] | 12 ovulatory, 8 anovulatory women; 25 ± 4 years; healthy | observational/D2, D8, D11–16, D18–23 | na (D2, D8); E2: 103 ± 58 ovulatory, 41 ± 16 anovulatory, LH 9.7 ± 8.8 ovulatory, 4.2 ± 1.1 anovulatory (D11–16); P4: 12 ± 5.4 ovulatory, 0.7 ± 0.5 anovulatory (D18–23)/blood | ICI—(1) stronger on D2 than on D8 and on D18–23 in anovulatory women, (2) stronger on D11–15 than on D8 in anovulatory women, (3) stronger in anovulatory women than in ovulatory women on D2, D11–16, D18–23, (4) strength correlates negatively with E2 level on D11–16 |
| rMT, MEP, CSP—no effects | ||||
| Hausmann et al., 2006 [33] | 13 women; 24 ± 4 years; healthy | observational/D2, D8–10, D21–22 | E2: 42 ± 16 (D2), 64 ± 31 (D8–10), 117 ± 49 (D21–22); P4: 1.5 ± 0.6 (D2), 1.6 ± 0.8 (D8–10), 12 ± 5.0 (D21–22)/blood | ISP duration—(1) longer on D21–22 than on D8–10, (2) correlated negatively with E2 on D8–10, and P4 on D21–22 |
| MT, CSP duration, TCT duration—no effects | ||||
| Schmith et al., 1999 [35] | 13 women; 34 ± 8 years; healthy | observational/D7–12, D18–27 | na (D7–12, D18–27)/na | SICI—stronger on D18–27 than on D7–12 |
| ICF—stronger on D7–12 than on D18–27 | ||||
| rMT—no effects | ||||
| Schmith et al., 2002 [34] | 18 women; 33 ± 8 years; healthy | observational/D4, D11, D18–24 | E2: 44 ± 29 (D4), 148 ± 78 (D11), 117 ± 62 (D18–24); P4: (1.0 ± 0.7 (D4), 1.1 ± 0.7 (D11), 11 ± 6 (D18–24)/urine | SICI—stronger on D2–5 and on D19–25 than on D9–12 |
| ICF—stronger on D9–12 than on D2–5 and D19–25 | ||||
| rMT, aMT, depression (BDI), anxiety (STAI), premenstrual tension syndrome—no effects | ||||
| Zoghi et al., 2015 [36] | 10 women, 10 men; 26 ± 5 years; healthy | observational/(D0–9, D12–15, D18–24) | na (D0–9, D12–15, D18–24)/saliva | hand function (Grooved Pegboard Test)—better on D18–24 than on D12–15 in women |
| rMT, ICI, ICF—no effects | ||||
| El-Sayes et al., 2019 [31] | 17 women, 17 men; 21 ± 2 years; healthy | interventional (cycling (20 min, 65–70% of HRmax); without control; pre, post evaluation/D8, D22 | E2: 43 ± 16 (D8), 157 ± 53 (D22), men 32 ± 8; P4: 0.3 ± 0.1 (D8), 8.5 ± 6.0 (D22), men 0,4 ± 0.1; T: 0.3 ± 0.1 (D8), 0.4 ± 0.2 (D22), men 5.3 ± 1.2/blood | MEP amplitude—(1) greater in men than in women (pre), (2) increased in both sexes after cycling |
| SICI—weaker in both sexes after cycling | ||||
| BDNF, IGF-1—no effects | ||||
| Bonifazi et al., 2004 [30] | 6 men; 31 (27–42) years; healthy | interventional (human chorionic gonadotropin (5000 IU) injection on D3); without control; D1, D5, D21 | E2: 51 ± 17 (D1), 155 ± 87 (D5), 44 ± 30 (D21); T: 6.9 ± 2.8 (D1), 12.1 ± 5.5 (D5), 7.4 ± 3.2/blood | rMT—lower on D5 than on D1 and D21 |
| MEP amplitude, duration—no effects |
Notes: BDI = Beck Depression Inventory; BDNF = brain-derived neurotrophic factor; CSP = contralateral silent period; D = day (in men)/menstrual cycle day (in women); E2 = oestradiol; HRmax = maximum heart rate; ICF = intracortical facilitation; ICI = intracortical inhibition; IGF-1 = insulin-like growth factor; ISP = ipsilateral silent period, LH = luteinizing hormone; mL = millilitre; (m)IU = (milli)-international unit; ng = nanogram; pg = picogram; P4 = progesterone; (r)MT = resting motor threshold; SICI = short-interval cortical inhibition; STAI = State-trait Anxiety Inventory; TCT = transcallosal conduction time.