Table 1.

Impact of captivity on long-term consequences.

Authors	Subjects	Research Area	Results
Dekel et al. (2014) [4]	275 former prisoners of war (ex-POWs) and 219 matched combatants (controls) in Yom Kippur War (1973).	The prevalence of depressive symptoms and PTSD symptoms was assessed in both groups at three different time points over a period of 17 years.	Depression and PTSD appear to be distinct long-term outcomes of traumatic stress, influenced to some extent by the severity of the trauma experienced. POWs exhibited higher rates of depressive symptoms and PTSD compared to the control group.
Sutker and Allain (1996) [13]	326 POWs of the World War II (WWII) European and Pacific theater and Korean Conflict (KC), and in 214 combat veterans of both wars and KC POW survivors, and 112 combat veterans of the same military operations who were not captured.	POWs’ trauma severity, captivity weight loss, and captivity duration and prevalence.	KC and WWII Pacific ex-POWs reported the highest levels of trauma and exhibited the highest rates of lifetime and current mental disorders, including PTSD. Notably, POW subgroups displayed greater psychopathology compared to combat veterans. The prevalence of PTSD was consistently high across all subgroups and frequently co-occurred with other mental disorders, indicating the enduring and wide-ranging impact of combat and POW experiences on mental health.
Sutker and Allain (1993) [15]	36 POW survivors and a group of 29 combat veterans were compared approximately 40 years after the war (WWII Pacific theater).	The impact of traumatic experiences on anxiety, mood states, and the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders, and depressive disorders.	Both groups showed a high occurrence of anxiety and depressive disorders. However, there were discrepancies in the rates of PTSD diagnoses. Among the POW survivors, 70% met the criteria for a current diagnosis of PTSD, and 78% met the criteria for a lifetime diagnosis. In contrast, the combat veterans had lower rates, with only 18% meeting the criteria for a current diagnosis and 29% for a lifetime diagnosis of PTSD.
Rintamaki et al. (2009) [16]	157 American military veterans who were former WWII POWs (the European and Pacific theaters).	POW experiences, effects on subsequent psychological and physical well-being, and ways in which these experiences shaped major decisions in their lives.	WWII POWs from Europe and the Pacific reported long-term emotional impacts from their captivity. Both groups had high rates of reflection, dreaming, and flashbacks about their POW experiences. Pacific theater POWs had higher current rates than in the past. After retirement, both groups ruminated more on their POW experiences; 16.6% met clinical PTSD criteria, with Pacific theater POWs three times more likely (34%) than European theater POWs (12%). Traumatic memories and clinical PTSD persist for up to 65 years after captivity. Rumination, flashbacks, and nightmares may increase after retirement, especially for Pacific theater POWs.
Tennant et al. (1986) [17]	170 Australian POWs of the Japanese and 172 non-POW controls (WWII).	Evidence of chronic psychiatric and psychosomatic morbidity over the 40-year period following the war.	POWs did not show a higher likelihood of psychiatric admissions compared to non-POWs, and fewer of them had multiple psychiatric admissions.
Tsur et al. (2017) [19]	59 Israeli ex-POWs who experienced severe torture in captivity, and 44 matched controls (Yom Kippur War).	Examination of chronic pain personification in torture survivors and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (at 18, 30, and 35 years after captivity).	Ex-POWs show higher levels of torturing personification but no differences in concrete description of chronic pain compared to controls. Torturing personification intensity varies with PTSD trajectories. Sequential mediation analysis reveals that PTSD at T2 and T3 mediates the link between torture and torturing personification.
Myers et al. (2005) [25]	102 male subjects who were in combat either in WWII (96) or in the Korean Conflict (6) and who had been held captive as a prisoner of war for a minimum of 3 months.	Relationship between duration captivity and weight loss during captivity and current PTSD symptoms.	The extent of weight loss experienced during imprisonment significantly correlates with the intensity and frequency of current PTSD symptoms in ex-POWs, even after more than five decades. However, there is no relationship between the duration of POW imprisonment and current PTSD symptoms.
Neria et al. (2000) [31]	164 POWs and 189 matched combatants of the 1973 Yom Kippur War.	Intensity of post-traumatic stress reactions, general psychiatric symptomatology, and problems in functioning at home and at work.	Ex-POWs showed higher rates and intensity of post-traumatic stress reactions, increased psychiatric symptoms, and more severe functional impairments at home, work, and in the military compared to the control group.
Henigsberg et al. (2001) [32]	136 PTSD patients exposed to war-related traumatic experiences divided into four groups: 79 veterans, 18 former prisoners, 15 victims of rape, and 24 refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina.	Investigation of trauma relation to specific symptom patterns in patients with PTSD.	There was compelling evidence suggesting that the characteristics of stressors have a significant impact on the range and quantity of intrusive, avoidance, and arousal symptoms displayed.
Stein et al. (2017) [34]	Two groups of Israeli veterans of the 1973 Yom Kippur War, 163 ex-POWs, and 185 matched non-captive veterans were assessed 18 (T1) and 30 (T2) years after the war.	PTSD symptoms and loneliness have been individually assessed.	Analyses indicated that compared with war, captivity was implicated in worse PTSD, which was implicated in worse loneliness. Loneliness, however, was not directly affected by the type of trauma.
Hunt et al. (2008) [35]	328 former U.S. military personnel held as POWs (WWII and Korean and Vietnam Wars).	Identification of aspects of POWs’ incarceration which are associated with later life disability status.	There are notable connections between disability in later life and various POW experiences such as torture, witnessing torture, solitary confinement, forced marches, dysentery, pellagra, vitamin deficiencies, scabies, depression, and suicidal ideation.
Zerach et al. (2014) [36]	Two groups of male Israeli veterans from the 1973 Yom Kippur War were examined: ex-POWs and comparable veterans who were not taken captive.	Assessing suicidal ideation (SI) among ex-POWs and its associations with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms over a 35-year period (T1 18 (1991), T2 30 (2003), and T3 35 (2008) years after the war).	Compared to control veterans, ex-POWs reported elevated levels of suicidal ideation (SI) at T2 and T3, along with an increasing trend in SI over time. Among ex-POWs, PTSD symptoms at T1 contributed to the acceleration of SI rate of change over time. Furthermore, PTSD symptoms had a significant impact on SI concurrently, surpassing the effects of SI trajectories.
Zerach et al. (2017) [37]	189 Israeli ex-POWs and 160 comparable combatants participated in a 17-year longitudinal study with three waves of measurements following the 1973 Yom Kippur War (T1: 1991, T2: 2003, T3: 2008).	Evaluation of long-term trajectories of post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) in ex-POWs and similar veterans, as well as the predictive role of hardiness and sensation seeking in PTSS trajectories.	Long-term PTSS trajectories vary among veterans and ex-POWs, with a higher prevalence of chronic and increasing symptom patterns observed in ex-POWs. Ex-POWs, as an at-risk population, exhibit exacerbated PTSS trajectories associated with the personality construct of hardiness.
Crompton et al. (2017) [38]	99 ex-POWs from the 1973 Yom Kippur War with and without PTSD and a group of 103 comparable veterans.	The prevalence of auditory hallucinations in trauma survivors and its association with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, over time, in 1991 (T1) and 2003 (T2).	Ex-POWs with PTSD exhibited higher levels of auditory hallucinations at T2 and experienced an escalation in hallucinations over time, in contrast to ex-POWs without PTSD and combatants who were not held captive. The overall PTSD score at T1 predicted an increase in auditory hallucinations between T1 and T2, but not the other way around. Among the PTSD symptoms, intrusion symptoms made a distinct contribution in relation to avoidance and hyperarousal symptoms.
Ohry et al. (1994) [39]	164 POWs and 190 controls (Yom Kippur War).	Long-term morbidity (18 years), psychophysiological complaints, and illness-related behaviors and association with characteristics of captivity.	POWs exhibited significantly higher psychophysiological complaints compared to the controls, and these complaints were significantly associated with symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The level of impairment experienced by individuals was connected to captivity-related factors.
Engdahl et al. (1998) [47]	262 American former prisoners of war (WWII and Vietnam War).	Investigation of comorbidity, time of onset, and the relationship of trauma severity to complicated versus uncomplicated PTSD.	PTSD typically arises shortly after experiencing trauma. Lifetime PTSD is linked to a higher risk of lifetime panic disorder, major depression, alcohol abuse/dependence, and social phobia. Current PTSD is associated with an increased risk of current panic disorder, dysthymia, social phobia, major depression, and generalized anxiety disorder.
Zerach et al. (2014) [57]	Israeli veterans from the 1973 Yom Kippur War: ex-POWs and comparable veterans who were not taken captive (at three time points: T1 18 (1991), T2 30 (2003), and T3 35 (2008) years after the war).	Assessing the impact of war captivity on persistent dissociation (PD) and the longitudinal relations between captivity stressors, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and PD.	Ex-POWs with PTSD displayed elevated levels of PD compared to ex-POWs and non-POW veterans without PTSD at T3. Additionally, PTSD symptoms at T1, T2, and T3 mediated the connection between captivity and PD at T3. PD was linked to loss of emotional control, detachment reactions to captivity, and post-traumatic intrusion symptoms.
Sladge et al. (1980) [60]	221 repatriated POWs of the Vietnam War still on active duty, and 341 matched controls in 1976.	Individual experiences of the stress and frustration and the long-term consequences of the war imprisonment experience.	Subjective sense of having benefited from the experience of war imprisonment was positively correlated with the harshness of the experience.
Solomon et al. (2008) [81]	103 ex-POWs and 106 comparable control veterans from the 1973 Yom Kippur War.	Post-traumatic symptoms, attachment anxiety, and attachment avoidance were assessed at two points in time, 18 years (T1) and 30 years (T2) after the war.	Ex-POWs exhibited higher post-traumatic symptoms compared to controls at both measurement points, and these symptoms increased solely among ex-POWs from T1 to T2. Attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance increased over time among ex-POWs, while they slightly decreased or remained stable among controls. Furthermore, the rise in attachment anxiety and avoidance was positively linked to the increase in post-traumatic symptoms in both study groups.