Table 2.

The influence of captivity and other factors on long-term consequences.

Authors	Subjects	Research Area	Results
Park et al. (2012) [5]	292 repatriated POWs (Vietnam War).	Extent to which demographic, captivity stressors, and indicators of mental health at repatriation predicted long-term mental health outcomes (PTSD, anxiety, and depressive symptoms).	The age at capture and post-traumatic stress symptoms upon repatriation were predictors for all three long-term mental health outcomes. Additionally, physical torture was associated with long-term post-traumatic stress symptoms. These findings emphasize the enduring impact of captivity and the remarkable resilience demonstrated by individuals.
Neria et al. (2014) [9]	136 POWs who were captured by the Egyptians and 28 who were imprisoned by the Syrians (18 years after the Yom Kippur War).	Sociodemographic background, battlefield stressors, captivity severity (weight loss in captivity, physical and psychological abuse, severity of the humiliation). Psychological responses during captivity and social support at homecoming.	Psychological responses during captivity were identified as the primary factors influencing the mental health of POWs. Additionally, the significance of education and ethnic status followed, with the severity of captivity also playing a role.
Engdahl et al. (1991) [21]	989 U.S. ex-POWs (WWII and the Korean War).	Sociodemographic status and medical symptoms during captivity, weight loss, and level of social support related to later levels of adjustment. Higher negative affect (NA), somatic symptoms and retarded activity (SO), interpersonal problems (IP), and lower positive affect (PA).	Younger age at capture, lower education level at capture, increased medical symptoms during captivity, and reduced social support were predictors of long-term maladjustment. Age at capture did not predict subjective well-being (SO), and captivity symptoms did not predict positive affect (PA). However, elevated levels of medical symptoms during captivity and low social support were especially predictive of later increased negative affect (NA) and subjective well-being (SO) scores.
Jukić et al. (2022) [29]	Croatian Homeland War veterans—264 combat veterans (116 had been held as prisoners of war and the remaining 148 were the control group) with diagnosis of PTSD.	The impact of sociodemographic factors, intensity of trauma, and social support on PTSD intensity and psychiatric comorbidity	Ex-POWs experienced a significantly greater number of traumatic events and had a higher prevalence of psychiatric comorbidities overall. The incidence of acute and transient psychotic disorders, generalized anxiety disorders, and psychological and behavioral factors related to disorders or diseases classified elsewhere was notably higher among ex-POWs.
Lončar et al. (2014) [30]	184 male participants who have survived war imprisonment during the Croatian Homeland War.	Examination of the role of socio-demographic characteristics, war experiences, and subjective quality of life in the prediction of three clusters of PTSD symptoms.	Traumatic war experiences predicted avoidance symptoms, while traumatic war experiences and subjective quality of life predicted hyperarousal symptoms. Additionally, traumatic war experiences, material status, and subjective quality of life were predictors of intrusion symptoms.
Jukić et al. (2019) [46]	Two groups of veterans from the Homeland War in Republic of Croatia (45 ex-POWs, 45 which were not imprisoned—control group). All participants were diagnosed with PTSD and had combat experience.	The health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in ex-POWs affected by PTSD, regarding the intensity of PTSD symptoms, sociodemographic characteristics, and somatic comorbidity. Identification of poor HRQoL predictors.	PTSD was associated with the HRQoL, whether the veterans were ex-POWs or not. Low socioeconomic status has proved to be the most significant predictor of poorer HRQoL.
Engdahl et al. (1997) [58]	262 US WWII and Korean War ex-POWs.	The long-term impact of traumatic experiences within the context of post-traumatic psychopathology.	Over half of the men (53%) met criteria for lifetime PTSD, and 29% met criteria for current PTSD. The most severely traumatized group (POWs held by the Japanese) had lifetime rates of 84% and current rates of 59%. Among those with current PTSD, 55% had uncomplicated PTSD without other concurrent disorders. Furthermore, 34% of those with lifetime PTSD had PTSD as their sole diagnosis. Age at capture, trauma severity, and postmilitary social support moderately predicted PTSD and weakly predicted other disorders.
Solomon and Dekel (2005) [53]	209 Israeli veterans of the 1973 Yom Kippur War (103 ex-POWs and 106 controls) 18 and 30 years after release from captivity.	PTSD changes over time, and the contribution of captivity severity (objective and subjective), sociodemographic variables, and psychological appraisal and coping with captivity to predicting PTSD.	Among the ex-POWs, 23% met criteria for PTSD and were 10 times more prone to psychological deterioration in the 12-year period between the two assessments, compared to controls. Nearly 20% of ex-POWs who did not meet PTSD criteria in 1991 now met criteria in the current assessment, in contrast to nearly 1% of the controls. Younger age at captivity, loss of emotional control, higher subjective appraisal of suffering during captivity, and a greater number of PTSD symptoms in the 1991 assessment were predictive of current PTSD.
Solomon et al. (2023) [56]	120 Israeli ex-POWs and 65 matched veterans of the 1973 Yom Kippur War after 18 (T1), 30 (T2), 42 (T3), and 47 years after the war.	The implication of exposure to distant trauma of war captivity, stressful life events across the life span, and PTSD trajectories and current PTSD.	The enduring impact of severe traumatic stress during young adulthood and subsequent trajectories of PTSD are evident in increased substance use among the elderly population.
Solomon et al. (2014) [64]	154 Israeli ex-POWs and a matched control group of 161 combat veterans 18 and 35 years after participation in the Yom Kippur War.	Assessed the long-term impact of war captivity on mortality and various health aspects and evaluated the potential mediating role of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depressive symptoms.	Captivity was linked to premature mortality, increased health-related conditions, and poorer self-rated health. The relationship between war captivity and self-rated health was mediated by PTSD and depressive symptoms, while the relationship between war captivity and health conditions was partially mediated by these symptoms, with the effects being more pronounced with age. Aging ex-POWs who develop psychiatric symptoms should be recognized as a high-risk group entering a vulnerable stage of life.
Solomon et al. (1995) [65]	164 Israeli ex-POWs and 184 comparable controls 18 years after their participation in the Yom Kippur War.	Implication of both sensation seeking and the subjective appraisal of captivity in the long-term adjustment of ex-POWs.	Ex-POWs with low sensation-seeking tendencies displayed higher levels of PTSD symptoms, more severe psychiatric symptoms, and greater intensity in intrusive and avoidance behaviors. High and low sensation-seeking POWs also differed in their emotional experiences when taken prisoner, subjective evaluation of suffering in prison, coping strategies employed during captivity, and emotional states experienced.
Sutker and Allain (1995) [68]	33 WWII aviators who were held as prisoners of war.	Impact of POWs’ demographic characteristics, military rank, and personal resources on rates of PTSD and resilience to captivity.	The results revealed higher MMPI profile patterns than anticipated based on previous research with pilots, along with a prevalence of current and lifetime PTSD at 33%, believed to be associated with the trauma of being a POW. WWII aviator POW survivors exhibited greater resilience to the effects of captivity compared to non-aviator WWII POW survivors of similar age, who generally possessed fewer advantages in education, military rank, and personal resources.
King et al. (2011) [69]	241 U.S. Naval aviators, Army soldiers, and Marines who were held as prisoners of war during the Vietnam War.	Examination of relations between personal and military demographics and captivity stressors with mental health outcomes (post-traumatic stress symptomatology (PTSS), general distress, and interpersonal negativity).	Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that being an officer acted as a protective factor in the relationships between physical torture and PTSS, psychological torture and PTSS, and psychological torture and interpersonal negativity.
Solomon and Dekel (2005) [74]	209 Israeli veterans of the 1973 Yom Kippur War (103 ex-POWs and 106 controls).	The psychological responses to captivity 18 and 30 years after release from captivity (rates of PTSD, changes in PTSD over time, and the contribution of captivity severity, sociodemographic variables, and psychological appraisal and coping with captivity to predicting PTSD.	Younger age at the time of captivity, experiencing a loss of emotional control and higher subjective perception of suffering during captivity, and having a greater number of PTSD symptoms in the 1991 assessment predicted the presence of PTSD in 2003.
Jukić et al. (2022) [79]	259 Croatian Homeland War veterans diagnosed with PTSD, with at least 6 months of combat experience. Among them, 90 subjects had also experienced imprisonment in enemy prison camps (at least 1 month of captivity).	Investigation of the effect of self-perceived social support on the intensity of PTSD symptoms and mental health-related quality of life (MHRQoL) in veterans more than two decades after exposure to trauma.	The obtained results showed that veterans who had a more positive perception of social support after the events of the war had less intense PTSD symptoms and better MHRQoL.
Bachem et al. (2021) [80]	149 ex-POWs and 107 combat veterans (1991, 2003, 2008, and 2015).	Evaluation of heterogeneity of changes over time and investigation of the contribution of trauma exposure (combat vs. war captivity), hardiness, and social support for depression trajectories.	Four distinct trajectories were identified: “resiliency” (62.8%), “delayed onset” (25.1%), “exacerbation” (6.2%), and “chronicity” (5.9%). The resilient group predominantly comprised combat veterans, while the clinical groups primarily consisted of ex-POWs. Lower levels of hardiness and social support were associated with more unfavorable trajectories.