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Schematic diagram of (a) amperometric/voltametric; (b) potentiometric; (c) conductometric biosensors; and (d) equivalent circuit of the impedimetric biosensor (Cdl = double-layer capacitance of the electrodes; Rsol = resistance of the solution; Cde = capacitance of the electrode; Zcell = impedance introduced by the bound nanoparticles; Rcell and Ccell = the resistance and capacitance in parallel, respectively). Adapted with permission from Naresh and Lee [32]. Copyright 2021, MDPI.
