Table 2.
Different hydrogel materials used for tissue engineering.
| Hydrogel Composition | Outcomes | Ref. |
|---|---|---|
| Core-shell scaffold based on aligned conductive nanofiber yarns (NFYs) within a methacrylated gelatin (GelMA) hydrogel | Aligned nanofiber yarns within a hydrogel scaffold induce neurite alignment and extension, promoting the alignment and elongation of nerve cells, offering potential for nerve tissue engineering applications. | [106] |
| In situ forming thermosensitive chitosan-glycerol phosphate hydrogel loaded with risedronate and nano-hydroxyapatite | The prepared hydrogel formulation with risedronate and nano-hydroxyapatite showed sustained drug release, enhanced Saos-2 cell proliferation, alkaline phosphatase activity, and calcium deposition, making it a promising option for bone tissue engineering. | [6] |
| Protein-based hydrogels derived from natural tissues | Investigating the nano-/micro-structure and composition of protein-based hydrogels derived from natural tissues is crucial for their widespread use in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. | [129] |
| Calcium alginate-gum tragacanth hydrogels incorporated with cobalt-doped nano-hydroxyapatite | The hydrogels exhibited enhanced swelling, degradation, diffusion, long-term viability of encapsulated cells, osteogenic differentiation, and angiogenic properties, making them suitable for bone tissue engineering applications. | [107] |
| Chemically crosslinked collagen/chitosan/hyaluronic acid hydrogels | Optimization of the hydrogel composition showed that using high concentrations of crosslinking agent and adjusting the hyaluronic acid content resulted in hydrogels with compact structure, good mechanical properties, prolonged degradation profile, and suitable biocompatibility for bone regeneration applications. | [7] |
| Injectable PCL-PEG-PCL-Col/nHA hydrogels | PCL-PEG-PCL-Col/nHA hydrogels showed successful integration of collagen and nano-hydroxyapatite, delayed biodegradation rate, no prominent pro-inflammatory response, and increased expression of CD31 and IL-10, indicating biocompatibility for hard tissue regeneration. | [108] |
| Enzymatically crosslinked CMC/gelatin/nHAp injectable gels | The enzymatically crosslinked injectable gels exhibited rigidity, adjustable crosslinking degree and strength, increased pore sizes with higher gelatin concentration, and support for osteoblast cell proliferation and differentiation, making them suitable for in situ bone tissue engineering applications. | [8] |
| Injectable semi-interpenetrating network hydrogel with chondroitin sulfate nanoparticles (ChS-NP)s and nanohydroxyapatite (nHA) | The gradient hydrogel construct demonstrated mineralized subchondral and chondral zones, higher osteoblast proliferation in the subchondral zone, porous structure with gradient interface, layer-specific retention of cells, and in vivo osteochondral regeneration with hyaline cartilage formation and subchondral bone integration. | [109] |
| Alginate dialdehyde-gelatin scaffolds with zirconium oxide nanoparticles | Incorporation of ZrO2 nanoparticles into alginate-gelatin hydrogels enhances mechanical and chemical properties. Nanocomposite hydrogels exhibit improved swelling behavior, controlled biodegradation, cell viability, and attachment, making them suitable for cartilage tissue regeneration. | [112] |
| Alginate-O-carboxymethyl chitosan/nano fibrin composite hydrogels | Alginate/O-CMC hydrogel blend demonstrated superior properties for tissue engineering applications, supporting the survival, adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells. | [113] |
| Injectable carrageenan nanocomposite hydrogel | Carrageenan nanocomposite hydrogel incorporated with whitlockite nanoparticles and an angiogenic drug promoted osteogenesis and angiogenesis in vitro, showing potential for bone tissue engineering. | [114] |
| Injectable thermosensitive hydrogel made of poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(epsilon-caprolactone)-poly(ethylene glycol) (PECE) and nanohydroxyapatite (n-HA) | Thermosensitive hydrogel nanocomposites exhibited good thermosensitivity, injectability, and 3D network structure, making them promising for injectable orthopedic tissue engineering. | [115] |
| Chitosan/collagen hydrogels nano-engineered with functionalized single-wall carbon nanotubes | Integration of COOH-SWCNTs into chitosan and collagen hydrogels increased mechanical strength, bioactivity, and potential for bone tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. | [116] |
| Nano-hydroxyapatite/glycol chitosan/hyaluronic acid composite hydrogel | Composite hydrogel exhibited porous structure, enzymatic degradation, and cytocompatibility, making it suitable for bone tissue engineering applications. | [117] |
| Laponite nanoparticle-associated silated hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose hydrogel | Incorporation of laponites into silated hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose hydrogel resulted in an interpenetrating network that improved mechanical properties without compromising cytocompatibility, oxygen diffusion, or chondrogenic cell functionality. | [118] |
| Nano SIM@ZIF-8-modified injectable high-intensity biohydrogel composed of composed of poly (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) and sodium alginate (SA) + nano simvastatin-laden zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 | nSZPS hydrogel stimulates osteogenic differentiation, inhibits adipogenic differentiation, exhibits excellent injectability, mechanical strength, and promotes bone regeneration in hyperlipidemic microenvironments. | [119] |
| Nano-silicate-reinforced and SDF-1alpha-loaded gelatin-methacryloyl hydrogel | GelMA-SN-SDF-1alpha hydrogel demonstrates injectability, controlled release of SDF-1alpha, MSC migration and homing, and excellent bone regeneration ability in critical-sized calvaria defects. | [120] |
| Succinylated gelatin cross-linked with aldehyde heparin formed nanoparticles, which were mineralized with hydroxyapatite (mineralized heparin-gelatin nanoparticles) | These nanoparticles may enhance the mechanical properties of injectable hydrogels for bone regeneration. | [122] |
| Injectable platelet-rich plasma (PRP)/cell-laden microcarrier/hydrogel composite system | Gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) and chitosan hydrogels were used to prepare scalable interpenetrating network GelMA/chitosan-microcarriers (IGMs) loaded with PRP and dermal papilla cells (DPCs). The composite system promoted DPC viability, hair inducibility, and hair follicle regeneration. | [123] |
| Polysaccharide-based injectable hydrogel compositing nano-hydroxyapatite | N-carboxyethyl chitosan (NCEC) and oxidized dextran (ODex) were cross-linked via Schiff base linkage to form an injectable hydrogel. The hydrogel, composited with nano-hydroxyapatite (nHAP), exhibited interconnected porous structure and showed excellent bone repair effect in vivo. | [124] |
| Bioactive glass nanoparticle-incorporated triblock copolymeric injectable hydrogel | Injectable hydrogel with bioactive glass nanoparticles showed good gelling and injectability properties, excellent swelling properties, enhanced bone cell proliferation, ALP activity, and apatite mineralization for accelerated in vitro osteogenesis. | [125] |
| Nano-fibrillar hybrid injectable hydrogel with heterotypic collagen fibrils | Injectable hydrogel with semi-interpenetrating networks of heterotypic collagen fibrils in a glycol-chitosan matrix showed nano-fibrillar porous structure, mechanical stability, prolonged half-life, and support for cell implantation. | [126] |
| Visible-light-mediated nano-biomineralization of customizable tough hydrogels | Rapid preparation of biomineralized tough hydrogels with improved mechanical and biological properties under visible light irradiation, suitable for customizable skin repair and bone regeneration. | [128] |
Abbreviations: PCL-PEG-PCL-Col/nHA, Poly(ε-caprolactone)-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(ε-caprolactone)/collagen/nano-hydroxyapatite; CMC, carboxymethyl-chitosan; SDF-1alpha stromal cell-derived factor-1 alpha.