Table 4.

Selected studies utilizing electrically stimulated bioreactors for organoid culture. hiPSC: human induced pluripotent stem cells; mESC: mouse embryonic stem cells; hESC: human embryonic stem cells.

Reference	Cell Source	Goal	Bioreactor Setup	Outcomes
Eng et al. [85].	hESCs and hiPSC.	Cardiac organoid differentiation/maturation.	Custom bioreactor with carbon rods in PDMS microchambers.	An increase in frequency leads to increased cardiac gene expression and better beating adaptation.
Yoshida et al. [86].	hiPSC-CMs.	Cardiac organoid maturation.	Organic carbon electrodes in poly(vinyl) alcohol hydrogel chambers.	ES leads to enhanced cardiac troponin expression and sarcomere formation.
Ma et al. [88].	hiPSCs with GCaMP reporter.	Early induction of cardiomyocyte differentiation.	IonOptix C-Pace system.	Organoid contractions were seen after 2 days with ES compared to 7 days without ES.
Zhang et al. [89].	Primary mouse cortical neurons.	Enhanced Neural Organoid.	3D interdigitated electrodes coated with polypyrrole.	ES of organoids leads to enhanced neurite outgrowth and synaptogenesis and rescues the phenotype of NRG1-KO neurons.
Sefton et al. [90].	Primary neural precursor cells.	Formation and differentiation of neural organoid.	Agarose salt bridge stimulation.	ES increases survival and spheroid size. It also increases neuronal expression while reducing astrocyte expression.
Ahadian et al. [92].	mESCs.	Cardiac organoid differentiation.	IonOptix C-Pace system.	ES enhanced cardiac gene expression and the beating area of organoids.