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. 2023 Jul 12;24(14):11380. doi: 10.3390/ijms241411380

Figure 1.

Figure 1

(a) Overview of the skin microbiome and innate immune system in atopic dermatitis. Skin-resident dendritic cells are activated by triggers of atopic dermatitis. Once triggered, dendritic cells (DC) migrate to the local lymph nodes to prime the naive T helper cells and shift these cells toward Th2 polarization. IgE class switching to B cells is also induced by Th2 cells. T-helper 2 cells are recruited back to the skin, along with Th1, Th17, and Th22 generating the “immunological march” of atopic dermatitis. Sa, staphylococcus aureus; Sh, staphylococcus hominis; inflammatory epidermal dendritic cell; S1PR, sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor; TSLP, thymic stromal lymphopoietin; AHR, aryl-hydrocarbon receptor; basophils; PAR2, protease-activated receptor 2; NK1R, neurokinin 1 receptor; GRP, gastrin-releasing peptide; ILC2, innate lymphoid cell 2; macrophages; eosinophils; lymph node, inflammatory dermal dendritic cell; Th2: T-helper 2 cell; OX40; OX40L: OX40 ligand; B-cell; Th1, T-helper 1 cell; Th17, T-helper 17 cell; Treg, regulatory T cell; mast cells; sensory neuron; CCR4: C-C motif chemokine receptor 4. This figure was created with Biorender at www.biorender.com. (b) Mechanism of action of different drugs acting on the skin microbiome and innate immune system in atopic dermatitis. KRO-105714 is a dual antagonist of sphingosylphosphorylcholine and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 in topical form. JTE-013 is an S1PR2 antagonist in topical form. Etrasimod, LC51-0255, and udifitimod are oral S1PR modulators. Tezepelumab is an anti-TSLP antibody. Tapinarof is an AHR agonist. Niclosamide, omiganan, FB 401 (Roseomonas mucosa), Staphylococcus hominis A9, and B244 are modulators of skin microbiome. VLY-686 and selropitant are NK1R antagonists. Telazorlimab (GBR830) and rocatinlimab are humanized monoclonal anti-OX40 antibodies. Amlitelimab is a monoclonal antibody that targets OX40L. RPT 193 is a CCR4 antagonist. Sa, staphylococcus aureus; Sh, staphylococcus hominis; inflammatory epidermal dendritic cell; S1PR, sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor; TSLP, thymic stromal lymphopoietin; AHR, aryl-hydrocarbon receptor; basophils; PAR2, protease-activated receptor 2; NK1R, neurokinin 1 receptor; GRP, gastrin-releasing peptide; ILC2, innate lymphoid cell 2; macrophages; eosinophils; lymph node, inflammatory dermal dendritic cell; Th2: T-helper 2 cell; OX40; OX40L: OX40 ligand; B-cell; Th1, T-helper 1 cell; Th17, T-helper 17 cell; Treg, regulatory T cell; mast cells; sensory neuron; CCR4: C-C motif chemokine receptor 4. This figure was created with Biorender at www.biorender.com.