Table 4.

Non-thermal technologies to reduce and eliminate antinutrients in faba bean seeds. Symbol ↑ donate improvement and ↓ indicate reduction.

Non-Thermal Technology	Processing Conditions	% Major Toxin Reduction	Reference
Extraction	Protein concentrate Protein isolate	↑Trypsin inhibitors increased by 64.79% ↓Vicine reduced by 8.5% ↓Convicine reduced by 12% ↓Trypsin inhibitors reduced by 80% ↓Vicine 100% reduction ↓Convicine 100% reduction	[34]
	Alkaline extraction (pH 10.5); protein isolate	↓Vicine and convicine reduced by 99%	[33]
Germination	Time: 0–9 days; temperature: 20 °C	↓Vicine reduced by 0.7–9.8%	[88]
Germination	Germination at 24–72 h at 25 °C	↓Phytic acid content reduced by 53.46–61% ↓Condensed tannins reduced by 56–60%	[43]
Germination	Time: 0–144 h	↓Trypsin inhibitors (TIU/mg) reduced by 26–38% ↓Phytic acid (mg/g) reduced by 55–58% ↓Condensed tannins reduced by 29–39%	[54]
Fermentation	Fermentation with Lactobacillus plantarum (DPPMAB24W); time: 0–48 h; temperature: 30 °C	↓Convicine content reduced by 14–93% ↓Vicine content reduced by 35–96%	[29]
Fermentation using L. plantarum	Fermentation with L. plantarum for 24 h at 25 °C	↓Phytic acid (mg/g) reduced by 8%	[123]
Fermentation	Fermentation with starter culture; time: 1–3 days at 30 °C	↓Phytic acid (mg/g) reduced 48–84%	[22]
	L. plantarum (sourdough) 48 h at 30 °C	↓Vicine and convicine reduced by 100%	[56]
Enzyme treatment	Flour treated with phytase (0, 2, 10, and 20 U) for 1–24 h using L. plantarum	↓Phytic acid (mg/g) reduced by 15.46–90.72%	[123]
Dry fractionation	Micronized flour, protein-rich fraction, coarse-starch-rich fraction, wet-extracted protein fraction, deproteinated starch-rich flour	Phytic acid (mg/g) content was 4.3, 10.5, 7, 10.2, and 1, respectively Trypsin inhibitor (TIU/g) content was 10.5, 14.5, 5.8, 14.8, and 3.2, respectively	[124]
High-pressure processing	Concentrate (600 MPa for 4 min)	↓Relative trypsin activity was reduced by 90.8%	[125]