Table 2.

Leadership assessment by employment group: main scales (in bold) and dimensions (LMX values can range from 7 to 35, FIF scales from 1 to 5)

	Practice leaders (N=84)				Employed physicians (N=28)				Practice assistants (N=254)
	M	SD	T*	n	M	SD	T*	N	M	SD	T*	n
Transformational leadership	3.9	0.6	45	84	3.9	0.7	56	27	3.5	0.8	52	237
Innovation	4.2	0.6	49	84	4.0	1.0	55	28	3.7	0.9	52	247
Team spirit	4.1	0.7	49	84	3.8	1.0	54	28	3.6	1.1	52	251
Performance development	3.6	0.8	44	84	4.1	0.7	57	27	3.5	1.0	51	247
Individuality focus	3.9	0.7	47	84	3.7	1.0	54	28	3.5	1.1	53	249
Providing a vision	3.5	0.9	45	84	3.6	0.9	55	28	3.2	1.1	51	245
Being a role model	4.1	0.6	45	84	4.0	0.8	55	27	3.7	1.0	52	246
Transactional leadership	3.4	0.7	47	83	3.5	0.7	54	27	3.2	0.8	50	244
Goal setting	3.5	0.7	44	83	3.7	0.9	56	27	3.1	1.0	50	246
Management by exception	3.3	0.8	51	83	3.4	0.8	52	27	3.3	0.9	51	245
Negative leadership	1.5	0.5	51	83	1.5	0.6	45	28	1.7	0.7	47	248
Laissez-faire	1.6	0.6	52	83	1.6	0.8	45	28	1.7	0.8	46	249
Destructive	1.4	0.5	51	83	1.4	0.6	46	28	1.6	0.7	48	248
LMX-7	28.1	2.6	–	81	n/a	n/a	–	n/a	26.7	4.8	–	222

*Reference t-values range from 0 to 100, as defined by Rowold and Poethke 2017.

FIF, Fragebogen für integrative Führung; LMX, leader-member exchange.