Table 2. Factors contributing to the attenuation of microvascular obstruction.

Hypothetical factor	Species	Experimental model	Effect	Ref.
CAO: coronary artery occlusion; CBF: coronary blood flow; eNOS: endothelial NO-synthase; MVO: microvascular obstruction; NO: nitric oxide; PKA: protein kinase A;
Na+/H+ exchanger	Rabbit	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Cariporide reduced infarct size and the no-reflow area	[60]
Nitric oxide	Pig	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	NO inhalation resulted in a decrease in infarct size. NO inhalation increased CBF in the area at risk	[61]
Adenosine	Dog	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Adenosine reduced infarct size by decreasing the release of endothelin from the heart during I/R	[65]
	Dog	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Infusion of adenosine during the first hour of reperfusion mitigated MVO	[43]
	Dog	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Adenosine increased CBF in the subendocardium with no change in CBF in the midmyocardium and epicardium	[65]
	Rabbit	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Adenosine had no effect on MVO	[55]
	Minipig	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Adenosine reduced the no-reflow area by 75%	[57]
	Rabbit	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	GP531 had no effect on CBF in the area at risk in reperfusion	[67]
	Pig	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	It was found that adenosine reduced the no-reflow area by 47%	[68]
Kinases and NO-synthase	Rat	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Tongxinluo reduced the no-reflow area by 80%. Tongxinluo promoted phosphorylation of eNOS and increased PKA activity	[69]
	Minipig	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Simvastatin reduced the no-reflow area by 28%. eNOS is involved in this effect of simvastatin	[71]
KATP channels	Minipig	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	The KATP channel opener and an NO donor nicorandil reduced infarct size and the no-reflow area	[74–75]
Ischemic conditioning	Rabbit	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Ischemic preconditioning decreased the no-reflow area by 37%	[60]
	Minipig	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Ischemic preconditioning reduced the MVO area by 78%. PKA and eNOS are involved in this effect	[70]
	Minipig	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Remote preconditioning reduced infarct size by 24%, and the no-reflow area by 45%	[76]
	Rabbit	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Post-conditioning had no effect on infarct size and the no-flow	[77]
	Pig	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Ischemic post-conditioning had no effect on infarct size or the MVO area	[78]
	Pig	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Ischemic pre-conditioning reduced infarct size by 50% and the MVO area by 80%. Post-conditioning had no effect on infarct size and the MVO area	[79]
	Pig	CAO and reperfusion in vivo	Ischemic pre-conditioning, ischemic post-conditioning, and remote perconditioning decreased myocardial edema and the MVO area	[80]