Table 2.

Risk factors for infection and colonization by MDR microorganisms in the ICU.

Microorganism	Risk factors
MDR K. pneumoniae[33,40]	Long-term hospitalization History of ICU admission Transplant patients Corticosteroid use Presence of a central venous catheter Mechanical ventilation Tracheostomy Parenteral nutrition Exposure to anti-pseudomonal penicillins, carbapenems, glycopeptides, aminoglycosides, and quinolones Continuous renal replacement therapy
MDR P. aeruginosa[34,41]	Quinolone exposure Having a history of hospitalization Cephalosporin and piperacillin tazobactam exposure Total parenteral nutrition Carbapenem exposure
MDR A. baumannii[35,42]	Carbapenems and penicillins + β-lactamase inhibitor exposure Advanced age History of hospitalization Corticosteroid use
VRE[36,37,43]	VRE colonization Vancomycin exposure Third-generation cephalosporin exposure Presence of a central venous catheter History of hemodialysis
MRSA[44]	MRSA colonization Age >65 years Trauma or medical patient Transferred from a long-term care facility Presence of a urinary catheter Previous antibiotic exposure Skin/soft tissue infections or superficial skin infections after surgery
Colistin resistance[45]	Increased age Prior antibiotic use Pre-admission stay in a skilled nursing facility Use of carbapenems within the last 90 days Previous carbapenem-resistant bacterial infection History of ventilatory support
Candida spp.[39]	Acute necrotizing pancreatitis Abdominal surgery and anastomotic leak or repeat laparotomy Exposure to broad-spectrum antibiotics Presence of a central venous catheter Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation Immunosuppression with chemotherapy and corticosteroids Hemodialysis Multifocal Candida colonization Prolonged ICU stay Total parenteral nutrition Low birth weight

ICU: Intensive care unit; MDR: Multidrug-resistant; MRSA: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus; VRE: Vancomycin-resistant enterococcus.