Table 4.

Intervention outcomes by intervention type.

Author	Comparison	Primary Outcomes	Findings
Parenting Groups
Ballard et al.	None	Adult: Mental health (depression, anxiety, PTSD, somatic concerns, relationship stress); Drug use	Adult: Significant increase in parental mental health problems, especially PTSD
		Child: Strengths and difficulties; PTSD; Depression	Child: Significant decrease in children’s depression symptoms and emotional problems.
		Family: Parental bonding; Parent/youth issues; Parental conflict/discipline	Family: No quantitative findings reported.
Lakkis et al.	None	Family: Parenting; Parenting stress; Disciplinary style	Family: improvement in parenting, parenting stress, disciplinary style,
Miller et al.	WLC	Adult: Stress; Psychosocial wellbeing; Psychological distress; Stress management	Adult: Significant improvement in all parent-reported outcomes in the intervention group.
		Child: Psychosocial wellbeing	Child: No significant increase in psychosocial wellbeing of children whose parents were in the intervention group.
		Family: Parenting	Family: Improvement in parenting in the intervention group.
Ponguta et al.	WLC	Child: Strengths and difficulties	Child: No significant improvement in children’s behavioral and emotional difficulties.
		Family: Disciplinary style; Parenting knowledge and practices	Family: decrease in harsh disciplinary practices of mothers in intervention group.
Renzaho & Vignjevic	None	Family: Parenting attitudes and child-rearing practices	Family: Significant improvement in parental expectations, parental empathy towards children needs, awareness and knowledge of alternatives to corporal punishment, and parent-child family roles; No change on the restriction of children’s power and independence dimension.
Stewart et al	None	Adult: Support needs; Loneliness and isolation; Coping	Adult: No statistically significant improvement in loneliness and coping.
		Family: Parenting stress	Family: No significant improvement in parenting stress.
Multi-Family Groups
El-Khani et al.	None	Adult: Anxiety; Strengths and Difficulties; Stress and Trauma; Mental Health (depression, anxiety, stress)	Adult: No decrease in parental mental health.
		Child: Behavioral Problems; PTSD; Depression; Anxiety	Child: Significant decrease in child behavioral problems and children’s PTSD.
		Family: Parenting	Family: Improved ratings in parenting.
Weine et al. (2003)	Non-engagers	Adult: Social support; Psychiatric service utilization; Knowledge and attitude re trauma mental health	Adult: Engagers had a significant increase in social support, psychiatric contacts, knowledge and attitudes.
		Family: Family problem solving communication; Family hardiness	Family: Engagers had a significant increase in family hardiness and some improvement in family problem solving communication.
Weine et al. (2008)	Control	Adult: Mental health visits; PTSD; Depression; Knowledge re trauma mental health	Adult: Significant higher number of mental health visits for intervention group;
		Family: Family comfort discussing trauma mental health	Family: Increase in family comfort talking about mental health.
Home Visiting
Betancourt et al.	CAU	Adult: Psychosocial functioning; PTSD; Anxiety; Depression	Adult: No significant decrease in caregiver mental health problems compared to CAU caregivers.
		Child: Psychosocial functioning; Depression; Anxiety; Suicide ideation; Functional impairment; PTSD; Child conduct problems	Child: Significant decrease in traumatic stress reactions, depression symptoms, and child conduct problems compared to CAU children.
		Family: Family functioning; Family conflict; Intergenerational congruence; Parenting practices	Family: Significant decrease in family arguing compared to CAU children; No significant improvements in caregiver-child relationships or healthy parenting outcomes compared to CAU caregivers and children.

Note: CAU, Care as usual; WLC, Waist list control.