Table 1.

Summary of anti-depressive-like behavior effect of rodent models with astaxanthin.

Tested Parameters	Animal models	AST dosage	Effect	Reference
FST, TST, LA, NO, iNOS, nNOS, eNOS, COX-2, NF-κB p65, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and related mRNA.	Male ICR mice (4–6weeks, 20–22 g) were injected with LPS (0.83 mg/kg).	Trans-AST (20,40,80 mg/kg).	Trans-AST has counteracted the depressive-like behavior of LPS-induced depression mice.	[65]
OFT, TST, Hole-board test, and oxidative stress estimation.	Adult (6 months) female swiss albino mice were injected intraperitoneally LPS(300 μg/kg).	2 mg/kg.	AST has counteracted the LPS-exposure induced behavioral deficits.	[66]
OFT, EMP, FST, LA, OGTT, pERK, pCREB, pAKT, and BDNF in the PFC.	Male Sprague-Dawley rats (300–350 g) were injected STZ (25 mg/kg).	7.5, 15, 25 mg/kg/d.	AST has counteracted comorbid diabetes and depression disorders.	[67]
OFT, FST, TST, neuronal morphology, p-Pi3K, p-Akt, p-GSK3β, and p-CREB.	Adult male Kunming mice (35–40 g) were injected omethoate (5 mg/kg) every day for 4 weeks.	50 mg/kg/d.	LiCl + AST treatment could counteract depression-like symptom.	[21]
The modified TST, the modified FST, GFAP, cleaved caspase-3, IL-6, IL-1β, and COX-2.	Adult male ICR mice (18–20 g) were injected intraperitoneally STZ (150 mg/kg).	25 mg/kg/d.	AST has an anti-depressant effect on diabetic mice.	[68]
CLET, UALST, FST, Bdnf mRNA, Arc mRNA.	Audlt male (175–200 g) and femal (125–150 g) Wistar-Unilever rats.	Krill oil 0.2 g/rat/d.	Krill oil improved learning processes and provided antidepressant-like effects.	[69]

Note: FST: forced swimming test, TST: tail suspension test, LA: locomotor activity, NO: nitric oxide, iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase, nNOS: neuronal NOS, eNOS: endothelial NOS, OFT: open field test, EMP: elevated plus maze, OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test, CLET: conditioned light extinction test, UALST: unavoidable aversive light stimulus.