Table 1.
Summary of the studies included in the meta-analysis
| Authors | Year of publication | Country | Setting | Sampling | Driver | Front seat passengers | Rear seat passengers | How often | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age | Method | Sex | N | Prevalence (95% CI) | Prevalence (95% CI) | Prevalence (95% CI) | ||||||
| Kim [14] | 2003 | Hawaii | ≥ 18 | _ | FM | 3457 | FM | 77.5 (76.1–78.9) | 78.2 (75.5–80.9) | _ | _ | |
| La [15] | 2013 | Vietnam | Hanoi | 31.9 (6.8) | _ | FM | 1214 | FM | 50.7 (47.8–53.5) | _ | _ | Always |
| FM | 11.7 (10.0–13.7) | _ | _ | Usually | ||||||||
| FM | 10.7 (9.10–12.6) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| Routley [16] | 2009 | China | Nanjing | _ | Interview survey | FM | 234 | FM | 56.4 (49.8–62.9) | _ | _ | Always/mostly |
| FM | 20.5 (15.5–26.3) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| Roadside observation | FM | 9294 | FM | 31.7 (30.7–32.6) | _ | _ | _ | |||||
| In-taxi observation | FM | 285 | FM | 20.4 (15.8–25.5) | _ | _ | _ | |||||
| Mohammadi [17] | 2011 | Iran | Kerman | 18–24 | _ | FM | 250 | FM | 18.0 (13.4–23.3) | _ | _ | Always |
| FM | 1.06 (11.6–21.1) | _ | _ | Most of the time | ||||||||
| FM | 20.0 (15.2–25.50) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| M | 179 | M | 10.6 (6.05–16.0) | _ | _ | Always | ||||||
| M | 15.6 (10.6–21.8) | _ | _ | Most of the time | ||||||||
| M | 19.9 (14.0–26.1) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| F | 71 | F | 36.6 (25.5–48.9) | _ | _ | Always | ||||||
| F | 16.90 (9.0–27.6) | _ | _ | Most of the time | ||||||||
| F | 21.1 (12.3–32.4) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| Allena [18] | 2019 | Virginia | ≥ 65 | Stratified sampling | FM | 751 | FM | 96.4 (94.8–97.6) | _ | _ | Always | |
| M | 392 | FM | 2.10 (1.20–3.40) | _ | _ | Nearly always | ||||||
| F | 350 | FM | 0.50 (0.10–1.30) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||
| Pérez-Núñez [19] | 2013 | Mexico | ≥ 10 | Randomly, observational | FM | 12,064 | FM | 45.0 (44.3–45.7) | _ | _ | _ | |
| García-España [20] | 2012 | USA | _ | Randomly selected | FM | 3126 | FM | 81.5 (77.0–85.2) | 68.9 (64.5–72.9) | _ | Often/always | |
| Chen [21] | 2015 | USA | 47.8 | FM | 1265 | FM | 86.1 (81.6–90.7) | _ | _ | Often | ||
| M | 1183 | FM | 7.80 (6.50–9.10) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||
| F | 86 | _ | _ | - | ||||||||
| Bener [22] | 2013 | Qatar | ≥ 20 | Multistage stratified cluster | FM | 1824 | FM | 17.6 (15.9–19.4) | _ | _ | Always | |
| FM | 29.6 (27.5–31.8) | _ |
_ _ _ |
More than half of the trip | ||||||||
| M | 1362 | M | 17.3 (15.3–19.4) | _ | _ | Always | ||||||
| M | 28.7 (26.3–31.2) | _ | _ | More than half of the trip | ||||||||
| F | 462 | F | 18.6 (15.1–22.4) | _ | _ | Always | ||||||
| F | 32.2 (28.0–36.7) | _ | _ | More than half of the trip | ||||||||
| Kritsotakis [23] | 2019 | Greece | 18–20 | Random sample | FM | 536 | FM | 72.1 (67.9–76.1) | 72.1 (68.1–75.9) | 19.7 (16.4–23.3) | Very often, regularly | |
| FM | 15.4 (12.3–18.9) | 20.6 (17.3–24.3) | 23.3 (19.7–27.1) | Occasionally | ||||||||
| M | 375 | M | 71.4 (66.4–76.1) | _ | _ | Very often, regularly | ||||||
| M | 17.8 (13.9–22.3) | _ | _ | Occasionally | ||||||||
| F | 161 | F | 73.9 (65.7–81.0) | _ | _ | Very often, regularly | ||||||
| F | 9.40 (5.10–15.5) | _ | _ | Occasionally | ||||||||
| Mohammadi [24] | 2015 | Iran | Sistan and Baluchistan | _ | _ | FM | 1427 | FM | 58.2 (55.7–61.0) | 73.3 (60.3–83.9) | _ | _ |
| M | 1393 | M | 58.3 (55.6–60.9) | 32.3 (26.9–38.2) | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 11 | F | 72.7 (39.0–93.9) | 62.3 (51.1–72.6) | _ | _ | ||||||
| Popoola [25] | 2013 | Nigeria | Makurdi | _ | Observational | FM | 500 | FM | 57.0 (52.4–61.4) | 40.3 (37.4–43.2) | 3.00 (1.90–4.50) | _ |
| M | 1137 | M | 31.2 (28.5–34.0) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 637 | F | 22.6 (19.4–26.0) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| Sangowawa [26] | 2010 | Nigeria | Ibadan | _ | Cluster sampling technique, observational | FM | 5757 | FM | 31.7 (30.0–33.4) | 10.3 (8.60–11.6) | 0.40 (0.10–0.90) | _ |
| M | 2627 | M | 30.2 (28.5–32.0) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 3130 | F | 47.3 (40.9–53.8) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| Mohammadzadeh [27] | 2015 | Iran | Kashan | _ | FM | 822 | FM | 68.1 (64.8–71.3) | 65.5 (58.2–72.3) | 30.2 (20.2–41.8) | _ | |
| Praveen [28] | 2020 | India | Observational | FM | 3345 | FM | 51.3 (49.6–53.1) | _ | 5.90 (5.00–6.80) | _ | ||
| M | 3121 | M | 50.1 (48.4–51.9) | _ | 6.20 (5.00–7.50) | _ | ||||||
| F | 224 | F | 63.8 (57.1–70.1) | _ | 5.60 (4.40–7.10) | _ | ||||||
| Bener [29] | 2008 | Qatar | 18–65 | A multistage stratified cluster | FM | 1110 | _ | _ | ||||
| FM | 35.4 (32.5–38.3) | _ | _ | More than half of the trips | ||||||||
| FM | 19.4 (17.1–21.9) | _ | _ | Always | ||||||||
| M | 847 | M | 34.3 (31.1–37.6) | _ | _ | More than half of the trips | ||||||
| M | 18.3 (15.7–21.0) | _ | _ | Always | ||||||||
| F | 263 | F | 38.7 (32.844.9) | _ | _ | More than half of the trips | ||||||
| F | 23.1 (18.2–28.7) | _ | _ | Always | ||||||||
| Briggs [30] | 2008 | USA | ≥ 16 | Stratified three-stage cluster | FM | 12,731 | FM | 59.0 (55.3–62.6) | _ | _ | Always | |
| M | M | 52.1 (48.4–55.8) | _ | _ | Always | |||||||
| F | F | 66.7 (62.7–70.5) | _ | _ | Always | |||||||
| Fernandez [31] | 2006 | USA | Massachusetts | ≥ 18 | Systematic sampling | FM | 381 | FM | 50.1 (45.0–55.2) | _ | _ | _ |
| M | M | 42.0 (34.9–49.4) | _ | _ | _ | |||||||
| F | F | 58.0 (51.3–65.8) | _ | _ | _ | |||||||
| Alomari [32] | 2020 | Jordan | Amman, Irbid, Zarqa | ≥ 18 | Observational | FM | 2098 | FM | 13.0 (11.3–13.7) | 8.00 (6.00–9.20) | _ | _ |
| M | M | 9.90 (8.80–11.0) | 6.80 (5.00–8.90) | _ | _ | |||||||
| F | F | 28.6 (24.5–33.1) | 8.90 (6.20–12.2) | _ | _ | |||||||
| Gebresenbet [33] | 2019 | Ethiopia | Addis Ababa | May—55 | Systematic sampling | FM | 167 | FM | 59.2 (38.8–77.6) | _ | _ | _ |
| M | 122 | _ | _ | _ | ||||||||
| F | 42 | _ | _ | _ | ||||||||
| Raman [34] | 2014 | Kuwait | ≥ 18 | _ | FM | 741 | FM | 41.5 (37.9–45.2) | 30.4 (27.1–33.9) | _ | Always | |
| M | 415 | FM | 31.7 (28.3–35.2) | 32.9 (29.5–36.4) | _ | Mostly/sometimes | ||||||
| F | 325 | _ | _ | _ | _ | |||||||
| Jermakian [35] | 2018 | USA | ≥ 18 | _ | FM | 1163 | FM | _ | _ | 72.1 (70.1–75.3) | Always | |
| M | _ | M | _ | _ | 67.7 (62.8–72.6) | |||||||
| F | _ | F | _ | _ | 75.4 (71.679.2) | |||||||
| FM | 1163 | FM | _ | _ | 16.2 (14.1–18.5) | Part time | ||||||
| M | M | _ | _ | 17.4 (9.40–25.4) | ||||||||
| F | F | _ | _ | 15.3 (8.20–22.4) | ||||||||
| Koushki [36] | 2006 | Kuwait | ≥ 18 | Random sample | FM | 1467 | FM | 36.6 (34.1–39.1) | _ | _ | Always | |
| FM | 13.5 (11.8–15.3) | _ | _ | Often | ||||||||
| M | 881 | M | 18.2 (15.7–20.9) | _ | _ | Always | ||||||
| M | 16.0 (13.6–18.6) | _ | _ | Often | ||||||||
| F | 586 | F | 64.0 (60.1–68.0) | _ | _ | Always | ||||||
| F | 9.70 (7.40–12.4) | _ | _ | Often | ||||||||
| Wong [37] | 2016 | Asia | Singapore, Malaysia, India, China | ≥ 18 | _ | FM | 4576 | FM | 91.4 (90.3–92.4) | 87.4 (85.0–89.6) | 44.7 (41.2–48.2) | _ |
| Vaughn [38] | 2012 | USA | _ | ≥ 18 | Multistage area probability | FM | 75,782 | _ | _ | _ | ||
| M | M | 97.2 (96.8–97.5) | 96.85 (96.5–97.2) | _ | _ | |||||||
| F | F | 98.4 (98.1–98.8) | 98.3 (98.0–98.6) | _ | _ | |||||||
| Taylor [39] | 2019 | USA | _ | ≥ 18 | _ | FM | 5292 | FM | _ | 68.0 (66.6–69.3) | 63.0 (62.7–65.3) | Full time |
| M | 2465 | M | _ | _ | 64.0 (62.0–65.9) | Full time | ||||||
| F | 2796 | F | _ | _ | 62.9 (61.1–64.7) | Full time | ||||||
| Tavafian [40] | 2011 | Iran | Bandar Abbas | Mean 31.6 ± 8.7 | Convenience | FM | 251 | FM | 53.3 (47.0–59.6) | _ | _ | Often |
| FM | 32.6 (26.9–38.8) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| Siviroj [41] | 2012 | Thailand | _ | _ | Quota sampling | FM | 13,722 | FM | 71.7 (70.9–72.4) | _ | _ | _ |
| M | 10,603 | M | 70.2 (69.3–71.0) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 3095 | F | 76.7 (75.2–78.2) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| Densu [42] | 2013 | Ghana | _ | _ | _ | FM | 9868 | FM | 33.4 (32.4–34.3) | 10.1 (9.40–10.9) | _ | _ |
| M | 9421 | M | 32.3 (31.3–33.2) | 10.5 (9.60–11.4) | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 447 | F | 56.8 (52.0–61.4) | 9.30 (7.90–10.8) | _ | _ | ||||||
| Jawadi [43] | 2017 | Saudi Arabia | _ | ≥ 18 | _ | FM | 695 | FM | 48.6 (44.8–52.4) | _ | _ | _ |
| M | 345 | _ | _ | _ | _ | |||||||
| F | 350 | _ | _ | _ | _ | |||||||
| Mahfoud [44] | 2015 | Qatar | Doha | Observational | FM | 2011 | FM | 72.7 (70.8–74.7) | _ | _ | _ | |
| M | 1885 | M | 72.5 (70.5–74.5) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 126 | F | 75.4 (66.9–82.6) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| Routley [45] | 2008 | China | Nanjing and Zhoushan | _ | Observational | FM | 15,2128 | FM | 49.0 (47.2–50.0) | 6.40 (6.00–6.70) | 0.40 (0.30–0.50) | _ |
| M | 76,591 | M | 48.6 (48.1–49.0) | 5.60 (5.20–5.90) | 0.30 (0.20–0.40) | _ | ||||||
| F | 18,697 | F | 53.2 (51.8–54.5) | 8.00 (7.40–8.60) | 0.40 (0.20–0.50) | _ | ||||||
| Routley [46] | 2007 | China | Nanjing | _ | Observational | FM | 31,700 | FM | 67.3 (66.6–68.0) | 19.0 (18.00–19.8) | 0.50 (0.30–0.70) | _ |
| M | 24,672 | M | 67.0 (66.3–67.8) | 17.7 (16.6–18.7) | 0.60 (0.40–0.90) | _ | ||||||
| F | 6678 | F | 68.9 (66.5–71.2) | 21.2 (19.7–22.8) | 0.50 (0.20–0.90) | _ | ||||||
| Xiao [47] | 2017 | China | _ | ≥ 18 | Randomly sampled | FM | 98,254 | FM | 7.00 (6.00–8.00) | _ | _ | Usually |
| FM | 8.00 (6.00–10.0) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| M | _ | M | 8.00 (6.00–10.0) | _ | _ | Usually | ||||||
| M | 9.00 (7.00–11.0) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| F | _ | F | 1.00 (1.00–3.00) | _ | _ | Usually | ||||||
| F | 0.40 (0.01–1.80) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| Nabipour [48] | 2014 | Iran | Tehran | _ | Observational | FM | 10,752 | FM | 70.9 (70.0–71.7) | _ | _ | _ |
| M | 9941 | M | 70.8 (69.9–71.7) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 811 | F | 71.3 (68.0–74.3) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| Mohammadi [49] | 2009 | Iran | Kerman | _ | Randomly, observational | FM | 800 | FM | 56.9 (52.6–59.6) | _ | _ | _ |
| Mohamed [50] | 2011 | Malaysia | _ | Mean 30 ± 9.7 | _ | FM | 793 | FM | _ | _ | 22.7 (19.8–25.7) | Always |
| FM | _ | _ | 17.1 (14.5–19.9) | Often | ||||||||
| FM | _ | _ | 28.5 (25.3–31.7) | Sometimes | ||||||||
| M | 459 | M | _ | _ | 44.4 (39.4–49.4) | _ | ||||||
| F | 324 | F | _ | _ | 46.3 (40.1–52.6) | _ | ||||||
| Reagan [51] | 2013 | USA | _ | ≥ 18 | _ | FM | 134 | FM | 61.9 (53.1–70.1) | _ | _ | Consistent |
| FM | 20.9 (14.3–28.7) | _ | _ | Occasional | ||||||||
| M | 73 | M | 60.2 (48.1–71.5) | _ | _ | Consistent | ||||||
| M | 19.1 (10.9–30.0) | _ |
_ _ |
Occasional | ||||||||
| F | 61 | F | 63.9 (50.6–75.8) | _ | _ | Consistent | ||||||
| F | 22.9 (13.1–35.5) | _ | _ | Occasional | ||||||||
| Martínez-Sánchez [52] | 2014 | Spain | Barcelona | ≥ 18 | Observation | FM | 2442 | FM | 89.5 (87.9–90.9) | 95.4 (93.5–96.8) | 67.6 (63.6–71.4) | _ |
| M | M | 97.6 (96.6–98.4) | _ | _ | _ | |||||||
| F | F | 98.6 (97.2–99.4) | _ | _ | _ | |||||||
| Abu-Zidan [53] | 2012 | UAE | Al-Ain | _ | _ | FM | 783 | FM | 25.6 (21.6–30.0) | 6.50 (3.40–11.2) | 1.30 (0.01–4.80) | _ |
| Afukaar [54] | 2010 | Ghana | Kumasi Metropolis | _ | Observational | FM | 11,827 | FM | 17.6 (16.9–18.2) | 4.90 (4.40–5.30) | _ | _ |
| M | 11,334 | M | 16.4 (15.7–17.0) | 4.70 (4.20–5.20) | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 493 | F | 44.8 (40.1–49.1) | 5.4.0 (4.50–6.30) | _ | _ | ||||||
| Beck [55] | 2009 | USA | _ | ≥ 18 | _ | FM | 347,280 | FM | 82.4 (82.1–82.7) | _ | _ | Always |
| Briggs [56] | 2006 | USA | Non-Hispanic white | ≥ 16 | _ | FM | 67,637 | FM | 40.3 (39.9–40.8) | 44.8 (43.9–45.7) | _ | _ |
| Mexican American | FM | 43.7 (42.1–45.3) | 43.8 (41.3–46.4) | _ | _ | |||||||
| Central American/South American | FM | 48.2 (44.4–52.2) | 46.8 (40.7–53.0) | _ | _ | |||||||
| Puerto Rican | FM | 43.1 (34.2–52.5) | 39.3 (33.9–44.9) | _ | _ | |||||||
| Cuban | FM | 39.6 (34.3–45.1) | 41.0 (32.0–50.5) | _ | _ | |||||||
| Sadeghnejad [57] | 2014 | Iran | Tehran | Stratified multistage, randomly | FM | 11,483 | FM | 77.9 (76.9–78.8) | 43.7 (42.1–45.2) | _ | _ | |
| M | 9334 | M | 77.5 (76.5–78.4) | 44.7 (42.6–46.7) | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 2150 | F | 81.0 (77.9–83.6) | 42.1 (39.5–44.7) | _ | _ | ||||||
| Han [58] | 2015 | Nebraska | _ | ≥ 15 | FM | 10,479 | FM | 83.0 (82.3–83.8) | _ | _ | _ | |
| M | 4439 | M | 77.1 (75.8–78.3) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 6040 | F | 87.5 (86.6–88.3) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| Kim [59] | 2009 | USA | _ | Teenage | Observational | FM | 14,026 | FM | 60.7 (59.9–61.4) | 64.1 (61.6–66.6) | _ | _ |
| M | 7620 | _ | _ | _ | _ | |||||||
| F | 7837 | _ | _ | _ | _ | |||||||
| Kim [60] | 2019 | Korea | _ | Mean 34.7 | _ | FM | 419 | FM | 82.8 (76.7–87.9) | 64.4 (54.6–73.5) | 24.8 (17.5–33.3) | _ |
| M | 247 | _ | _ | _ | ||||||||
| F | 172 | _ | _ | _ | ||||||||
| Kwak [61] | 2015 | Korea | _ | ≥ 19 | _ | FM | 23,698 | FM | 76.6 (75.9–77.3) | 45.6 (44.6–46.6) | _ | _ |
| M | 12,527 | _ | _ | _ | ||||||||
| F | 11,171 | _ | _ | _ | ||||||||
| Lardelli-Claret [62] | 2009 | Spain | _ | ≥ 18 | _ | FM | 84,338 | FM | 90.4 (90.2–90.6) | 88.8 (88.6–89.1) | _ | _ |
| Molnar [63] | 2012 | USA | _ | _ | _ | FM | 19,090 | FM | 66.1 (65.5–66.8) | _ | _ | _ |
| M | 13,439 | M | 62.3 (61.4–63.1) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 5651 | F | 75.3 (74.2–76.5) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| Sabzevari [64] | 2016 | Iran | Kashmar, Bardaskan, Khalilabad | Observational | FM | 10,255 | FM | 51.8 (50.8–52.7) | _ | _ | _ | |
| M | 9798 | M | 51.4 (50.4–52.3) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 457 | F | 60.5 (55.9–65.1) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| Zambon [65] | 2008 | Italy | Veneto region | _ | Multistage sample stratification | FM | 16,040 | _ | _ | _ | _ | |
| Observational 2003 | M | M | _ | _ | 10.6 (9.1–12.1) | _ | ||||||
| F | F | _ | _ | 11.7 (10.4–13.0) | _ | |||||||
| _ | _ | _ | ||||||||||
| Self-reported 2003 | M | M | _ | _ | 13.5 (12.0–15.1) | _ | ||||||
| F | F | _ | _ | 17.5 (15.8–19.1) | _ | |||||||
| _ | _ | _ | ||||||||||
| Observational 2005 | M | M | _ | _ | 25.0 (23.0–27.0) | _ | ||||||
| F | F | _ | _ | 27.6 (25.7–29.4) | _ | |||||||
| _ | _ | _ | ||||||||||
| Self-reported 2005 | M | M | _ | _ | 35.8 (33.2–38.4) | _ | ||||||
| F | F | _ | _ | 38.8 (36.9–40.7) | _ | |||||||
| Dulf [66] | 2020 | Romania | Cluj-Napoca | _ | Observational | FM | 768 | FM | 66.8 (63.3–70.1) | _ | _ | _ |
| M | 469 | _ | _ | _ | ||||||||
| F | 299 | _ | _ | _ | ||||||||
| Beck [67] | 2019 | USA | _ | ≥ 18 | Probability-based sampling | FM | 4170 | FM | _ | 86.1 (85.0–87.1) | 61.6 (60.0–63.1) | Always |
| M | 2009 | M | _ | 82.2 (80.5–83.9) | 60.0 (57.7–62.3) | |||||||
| F | 2161 | F | _ | 89.6 (88.4–90.9) | 62.9 (60.9–650) | |||||||
| Bhat [9] | 2015 | USA | _ | ≥ 18 | _ | FM | 3953 | FM | _ | 62.0 (60.4–63.5) | Always | |
| M | 1804 | M | _ | 60.0 (56.9–63.1) | ||||||||
| F | 2149 | F | _ | 62.9 (60.1–65.8) | ||||||||
| Boakye [68] | 2019 | USA | East Tennessee | _ | A multistage area probability, observational | FM | 33,310 | FM | 92.0 (91.6–92.3) | 85.4 (85.0–85.8) | _ | _ |
| M | 22,172 | M | 86.0 (85.5–86.5) | 79.0 (78.2–79.7) | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 11,138 | F | 86.0 (85.3–86.6) | 89.0 (88.5–89.4) | _ | _ | ||||||
| Crandon [69] | 2006 | Jamaica | Kingston | _ | Observational | FM | 2846 | FM | 81.2 (79.5–82.7) | 74.0 (70.7–77.1) | _ | _ |
| M | 2028 | M | 77.3 (75.2–79.2) | 66.3 (60.8–71.3) | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 1014 | F | 92.5 (90.0–94.4) | 80.0 (75.7–83.6) | _ | _ | ||||||
| Fong [70] | 2016 | Australia | _ | ≥ 75 | Observational | FM | 367 | FM | 97.0 (94.7–98.4) | _ | _ | |
| Iribhogbe [71] | 2008 | Nigeria | Benin | Observational | FM | 1785 | FM | 52.3 (47.0–57.5) | 18.4 (14.1–23.3) | 6.10 (4.80–7.70) | _ | |
| Kamal [72] | 2015 | Malaysia | Selangor | 18–39 | Convenience sampling | FM | 408 | FM | 45.1 (40.2–50.0) | _ | _ | Always |
| FM | 27.9 (23.6–32.5) | _ | _ | Most of the time | ||||||||
| FM | 20.5 (16.7–24.8) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| _ | _ | |||||||||||
| M | 184 | M | 40.2 (33.0–47.6) | _ | _ | Always | ||||||
| M | 28.2 (21.8–35.3) | _ | _ | Most of the time | ||||||||
| M | 26.0 (19.9–33.0) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| _ | _ | |||||||||||
| F | 224 | F | 49.1 (42.3–55.8) | _ | _ | Always | ||||||
| F | 27.6 (21.9–34.0) | _ | _ | Most of the time | ||||||||
| F | 16.0 (11.5–21.5) | _ | _ | Sometimes | ||||||||
| Febres [73] | 2020 | Spain | _ | _ | _ | FM | 257,851 | FM | 74.4 (74.2–74.5) | _ | _ | _ |
| M | 178,839 | _ | _ | |||||||||
| F | 76,837 | _ | _ | |||||||||
| Ünal [74] | 2020 | Turkey | Semi-rural | Mean 16.0 ± 1.2 | _ | FM | 1465 | FM | 77.1 (74.9–79.2) | _ | _ | _ |
| M | 759 | M | 74.3 (71.0–77.3) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 706 | F | 80.1 (77.0–83.0) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| Shaaban1 [75] | 2018 | Qatar | _ | 18–25 | FM | 3049 | FM | 61.4 (59.4–63.3) | 48.8 (44.5–53.2) | _ | _ | |
| M | 1856 | M | 58.0 (55.6–60.4) | 40.6 (33.6–47.8) | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 1193 | F | 67.9 (64.7–71.0) | 53.6 (48.2–59.0) | _ | _ | ||||||
| Shaaban [76] | 2020 | Qatar | Doha | ≥ 18 | _ | FM | 7908 | FM | 83.6 (82.7–84.4) | _ | _ | _ |
| M | 7180 | M | 83.3 (82.4–84.2) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| F | 728 | F | 86.1 (83.4–88.5) | _ | _ | _ | ||||||
| Siddiqui [77] | 2014 | Pakistan | Karachi | _ | convenience | FM | 212 | FM | 15.0 (10.5–20.6) | _ | _ | Regularly |
| M | 126 | FM | 34.4 (28.0–41.2) | _ | _ | Occasionally | ||||||
| F | 86 | _ | _ | |||||||||
| Li [78] | 2018 | China | Shanghai | _ | Stratified, observational | FM | 77,641 | FM | 88.4 (88.1–88.6) | _ | _ | _ |
| M | 61,561 | _ | _ | _ | _ | |||||||
| F | 61,088 | _ | _ | _ | _ | |||||||
| Kulanthayan [79] | 2004 | Malaysia | _ | _ | _ | FM | 273 | FM | 76.6 (68.6–83.4) | 56.0 (41.2–70.0) | _ | _ |
| Lerner [80] | 2001 | USA | _ | 13–93 | _ | FM | 1656 | FM | 71.9 (69.7–74.1) | _ | _ | _ |