Table 3.
Association Between Long-Term PPI Use (Mean 6.2 Years Use From Baseline) and Cognitive Function at Wave-4 (Mean 12.7 years) Follow-up Among 404 Participants in the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study
| N | β long-term PPI use (95% CI) | p long-term PPI use | p long-term PPI use×age * | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Global cognitive score | ||||
| Model 1† | 404 | −0.045 (−0.173, 0.084) | .5 | |
| Model 2‡ | 379 | 0.037 (−0.084, 0.158) | .55 | |
| Model 3§ | 364 | 0.054 (−0.072, 0.180) | .4 | |
| Model 4‖ | 311 | 0.021 (−0.112, 0.154) | .75 | .36 |
| Executive function | ||||
| Model 1† | 404 | 0.091(−0.388, 0.196) | .52 | |
| Model 2‡ | 379 | 0.101 (−0.164, 0.366) | .45 | |
| Model 3§ | 364 | 0.12 (−0.159, 0.391) | .41 | |
| Model 4‖ | 311 | 0.054 (−0.238, 0.345) | .72 | .24 |
| Memory score | ||||
| Model 1† | 404 | 0.062 (−0.209, 0.332) | .66 | |
| Model 2‡ | 379 | 0.077 (−0.198, 0.352) | .58 | |
| Model 3§ | 364 | 0.11 (−0.176, 0.399) | .45 | |
| Model 4‖ | 311 | 0.098 (−0.211, 0.406) | .53 | .402 |
Notes: Age and all covariates at wave-3. PPI = proton pump inhibitor; CI = confidence interval; BMI = body mass index; CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression; H2RA = histamine type-2 receptor antagonist; NSAID = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug.
*Interaction: baseline PPI use and baseline age.
†Model 1: Univariate (n = 404).
‡Model 2: Adjusted for age (continuous), sex/estrogen status (categorical: male; female premenopausal or postmenopausal with estrogen use and female postmenopausal with no estrogen use), smoking (categorical: nonsmoker/lifetime use of <100 cigarettes, past smoker, and current smoker), education (categorical: education <eighth grade and eighth grade and above), Apolipoprotein E Ɛ4 (categorical: no copies, at least 1 copy, and missing), alcohol frequency(categorical: nondrinker/none within past year, moderate drinker, or heavy drinker), and BMI (categorical: overweight, obese, and extremely obese).
§Model 3: Adjusted for model 2+ depression score (CES-D; continuous), diabetes (categorical: yes/no), hypertension (yes/no), and stroke (yes/no).
‖Model 4: Adjusted for model 3+ anemia (yes/no), H2RA (yes/no), platelet aggregation inhibitors (yes/no), aspirin (yes/no), NSAID (yes/no), multivitamin (yes/no), and Mediterranean diet score (range 0–9).