Table 4.
Longitudinal Association Baseline PPI Use and Cognitive Function Over Wave-4 (Mean 12.7 Years) Follow-up in the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study
| Model 1* | Model 2† | Model 3‡ | Model 4§ | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| β | 95% CI | p | β | 95% CI | p | β | 95% CI | p | β | 95% CI | p | |
| Global cognitive score | ||||||||||||
| PPI | −0.052 | −0.110, 0.007 | .084 | −0.005 | −0.059, 0.049 | .85 | 0.009 | −0.044, 0.064 | .72 | −0.001 | −0.056, 0.053 | .96 |
| Time | −0.002 | −0.005, 0.002 | .32 | −0.002 | −0.004, 0.001 | .29 | −0.002 | −0.005, 0.001 | .22 | −0.003 | −0.006, −0.0004 | .09 |
| PPI: time | −0.0006 | −0.007, 0.006 | .85 | −0.0007 | −0.006, 0.005 | .8 | 0.0002 | −0.006, 0.007 | .95 | 0.001 | −0.005, 0.008 | .74 |
| N observations | 2 685 | 2 660 | 2 655 | 2 586 | ||||||||
| N groups | 1 290 | 1 278 | 1 275 | 1 234 | ||||||||
| AIC‖ | 2 584 | 2 341 | 2 343 | 2 283 | ||||||||
| BIC¶ | 2 637 | 2 465 | 2 501 | 2 481 | ||||||||
| LL# | −1 283 | −1 149 | −1 144 | −1 107 | ||||||||
| Executive function | ||||||||||||
| PPI | −0.19 | −0.31, −0.066 | .003 | −0.059 | −0.17, 0.0503 | .29 | −0.017 | −0.13, 0.092 | .76 | −0.027 | −0.138, 0.084 | .63 |
| Time | −0.028 | −0.034, −0.022 | .00 | −0.027 | −0.033, −0.021 | .00 | −0.027 | −0.033, −0.021 | .00 | −0.028 | −0.034, −0.022 | .00 |
| PPI: time | 0.0003 | −0.012, 0.013 | .96 | −0.0005 | −0.013, 0.012 | .94 | −0.0004 | −0.013, 0.012 | .94 | 0.0004 | −0.012, 0.013 | .94 |
| N observations | 2 685 | 2 660 | 2 655 | 2 586 | ||||||||
| N groups | 1 290 | 1 278 | 1 275 | 1 234 | ||||||||
| AIC‖ | 6 321 | 5 918 | 5 890 | 5 745 | ||||||||
| BIC¶ | 6 374 | 6 042 | 6 049 | 5 943 | ||||||||
| LL# | −3 151 | −2 938 | −2 918 | −2 838 | ||||||||
| Memory score | ||||||||||||
| PPI | −0.017 | −0.13, 0.10 | .77 | −0.002 | −0.12, 0.11 | .97 | 0.024 | −0.088, 0.14 | .68 | −0.0004 | −0.114, 0.113 | .99 |
| Time | 0.008 | 0.0002, 0.016 | .044 | 0.006 | −0.002, 0.014 | .14 | 0.006 | −0.003, 0.014 | .17 | 0.004 | −0.004, 0.012 | .32 |
| PPI: time | 0.007 | −0.009, 0.023 | .39 | 0.008 | −0.008, 0.024 | .32 | 0.008 | −0.008, 0.024 | .31 | 0.011 | −0.005, 0.026 | .17 |
| N observations | 2 685 | 2 660 | 2 655 | 2 586 | ||||||||
| N groups | 1 290 | 1 278 | 1 275 | 2 586 | ||||||||
| AIC‖ | 7 219 | 7 052 | 7 037 | 1 234 | ||||||||
| BIC¶ | 7 272 | 7 175 | 7 196 | 7 073 | ||||||||
| LL# | −3 600 | −3 505 | −3 492 | −3 403 |
Notes: Linear mixed effects models to examine longitudinal association baseline PPI use and cognitive function over wave-4 follow-up (mean 12.7 years from baseline). Cognitive function scores (baseline to mean 12.7 years from baseline); PPI use and all covariates at baseline. Estimates for models with and without interaction are from the same model. PPI = proton pump inhibitor; CI = confidence interval; CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression; H2RA = histamine type-2 receptor antagonist; NSAID = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug.
*Model 1: Univariate.
†Model 2: Adjusted for age (continuous), sex/estrogen status (categorical: male; female premenopausal or postmenopausal with estrogen use and female postmenopausal with no estrogen use), smoking (categorical: nonsmoker/lifetime use of <100 cigarettes, past smoker, and current smoker), education (categorical: education <eighth grade and eighth grade and above), Apolipoprotein E Ɛ4 (categorical: no copies, at least 1 copy, and missing), alcohol frequency (categorical: nondrinker/none within past year, moderate drinker, or heavy drinker), and BMI (categorical: overweight, obese, and extremely obese).
‡Model 3: Adjusted for model 2+ depression score (CES-D; continuous), diabetes (categorical: yes/no), hypertension (yes/no), and stroke (yes/no).
§Model 4: Adjusted for model 3+ anemia (yes/no), H2RA (yes/no), platelet aggregation inhibitors (yes/no), aspirin (yes/no), NSAID (yes/no), multivitamin (yes/no), and Mediterranean diet score (range 0–9).
‖AIC = Akaike Information Criterion.
¶BIC = Bayesian Information Criterion.
#LL = log-likelihood.