Parameterc	Coefficient	(SE)	OR	95% CI	P Value
Intercept	-5.21	(0.1)	–		< 0.001
Age	-0.03	(0.0)	0.97	0.96-0.97	< 0.001
Male	0.80	(0.0)	2.22	2.12-2.33	< 0.001
U.S. census divisiond
Northeast	[reference value]
Midwest	-0.74	(0.0)	0.48	0.45-0.51	< 0.001
South	-0.43	(0.0)	0.65	0.61-0.69	< 0.001
West	-0.35	(0.0)	0.70	0.65-0.75	< 0.001
Unknown	0.08	(0.1)	1.08	0.97-1.21	0.155
Employment status of primary beneficiary
Active	[reference value]
Retirement/early retirement	0.22	(0.0)	1.24	1.15-1.33	< 0.001
Short-term disability/long-term disability	0.05	(0.1)	1.06	0.94-1.18	0.343
Leave of absence	0.72	(0.1)	2.06	1.82-2.32	< 0.001
Othere	0.36	(0.1)	1.44	1.21-1.72	< 0.001
Unknown	-0.23	(0.0)	0.79	0.74-0.85	< 0.001
Relationship to primary beneficiary
Self	[reference value]
Child	1.15	(0.0)	3.14	2.91-3.40	< 0.001
Spouse	0.26	(0.0)	1.30	1.23-1.38	< 0.001
Otherf	0.69	(0.2)	1.98	1.36-2.90	< 0.001
Unknown	0.92	(0.5)	2.50	1.00-6.24	0.050
Year of index date
2012	[reference value]
2013	0.36	(0.0)	1.43	1.36-1.51	< 0.001
2014	0.45	(0.0)	1.57	1.48-1.66	< 0.001
2015	0.37	(0.1)	1.44	1.26-1.65	< 0.001
Duration of continuous insurance coverage following the index date
0-1 months	[reference value]
1-2 months	0.23	(0.1)	1.25	1.07-1.47	0.006
2-3 months	0.33	(0.1)	1.40	1.19-1.63	< 0.001
3-4 months	0.40	(0.1)	1.50	1.27-1.77	< 0.001
4-5 months	0.45	(0.1)	1.57	1.32-1.85	< 0.001
5-6 months	0.46	(0.1)	1.59	1.34-1.88	< 0.001
≥ 6 months	0.64	(0.1)	1.90	1.67-2.17	< 0.001
CCI componentsg
Myocardial infarction	-0.15	(0.2)	0.86	0.56-1.32	0.493
Congestive heart failure	-0.12	(0.1)	0.89	0.69-1.15	0.369
Peripheral vascular disease	-0.10	(0.1)	0.90	0.69-1.17	0.436
Cerebrovascular disease	-0.27	(0.1)	0.77	0.61-0.96	0.020
Dementia	-0.77	(0.6)	0.46	0.14-1.49	0.196
Chronic pulmonary disease	0.05	(0.0)	1.05	0.96-1.16	0.275
Rheumatologic disease	-0.04	(0.1)	0.96	0.79-1.18	0.705
Peptic ulcer disease	0.35	(0.2)	1.41	0.99-2.02	0.059
Mild liver disease	0.39	(0.1)	1.48	1.26-1.75	< 0.001
Mild to moderate diabetes	-0.16	(0.1)	0.85	0.76-0.96	0.006
Diabetes with chronic complications	-0.18	(0.1)	0.84	0.66-1.06	0.141
Hemiplegia or paraplegia	-0.80	(0.2)	0.45	0.28-0.72	0.001
Renal disease	-0.09	(0.1)	0.91	0.70-1.18	0.489
Any malignancy including lymphoma and leukemia	-0.07	(0.1)	0.93	0.78-1.11	0.430
Moderate or severe liver disease	0.49	(0.3)	1.63	0.87-3.06	0.129
Metastatic solid tumor	-0.64	(0.2)	0.53	0.35-0.79	0.002
HIV/AIDS	-0.18	(0.2)	0.83	0.55-1.27	0.396
Other selected comorbiditiesg
Nonopioid substance abuse	1.35	(0.0)	3.87	3.56-4.20	< 0.001
Major depressive disorder	0.19	(0.0)	1.21	1.10-1.32	< 0.001
Other psychosis	0.40	(0.1)	1.50	1.35-1.65	< 0.001
Other mental disorder	0.51	(0.0)	1.66	1.57-1.77	< 0.001
Headache	-0.08	(0.0)	0.92	0.84-1.01	0.080
Neuropathic pain	0.14	(0.0)	1.15	1.05-1.27	0.003
Hernia	-0.10	(0.1)	0.90	0.73-1.12	0.343
Arthropathies and related disorders (excluding osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis)	0.08	(0.0)	1.08	1.01-1.16	0.035
Rheumatoid arthritis	0.28	(0.2)	1.33	0.89-1.98	0.162
Osteoarthritis	0.21	(0.1)	1.24	1.11-1.38	< 0.001
Back/neck pain	0.54	(0.0)	1.71	1.62-1.82	< 0.001
Rheumatism, excluding the back (excludes fibromyalgia, neuralgia)	-0.03	(0.0)	0.98	0.91-1.05	0.489
Fibromyalgia	0.08	(0.1)	1.09	0.97-1.22	0.148
Osteopathies, chondropathies, and acquired musculoskeletal deformities	-0.20	(0.1)	0.82	0.73-0.92	0.001
Abdominal pain	0.16	(0.0)	1.17	1.08-1.27	< 0.001
Fractures, dislocations, and sprains/strains	-0.06	(0.0)	0.94	0.87-1.01	0.097
Other injuries	0.18	(0.0)	1.20	1.11-1.29	< 0.001
Hereditary hemolytic anemias	-0.28	(0.4)	0.76	0.34-1.66	0.485
Pain and other symptoms associated with female genital organs	0.02	(0.1)	1.02	0.89-1.17	0.789
Acute pain	-0.01	(0.1)	0.99	0.83-1.17	0.887
Chronic pain	0.80	(0.1)	2.22	1.92-2.57	< 0.001
Dental pain	0.07	(0.1)	1.08	0.92-1.25	0.349
Other pain	0.78	(0.1)	2.19	1.91-2.52	< 0.001
Baseline health care resource useh
Inpatient days	0.00	(0.0)	1.00	1.00-1.01	0.163
ED visits	0.09	(0.0)	1.10	1.08-1.12	< 0.001
Rehabilitation facility days	0.02	(0.0)	1.02	1.01-1.02	< 0.001
Outpatient/other visits	-0.01	(0.0)	0.99	0.99-1.00	0.003
Selected musculoskeletal surgeries
Hip	0.02	(0.3)	1.02	0.60-1.73	0.950
Knee	-0.22	(0.2)	0.80	0.52-1.22	0.296
Shoulder	0.11	(0.3)	1.12	0.59-2.14	0.728
Spine	-0.15	(0.1)	0.86	0.66-1.13	0.274
Number of prescriptions filled	0.03	(0.0)	1.03	1.03-1.03	< 0.001
Number of unique NDC numbers filledi	-0.04	(0.0)	0.96	0.95-0.97	< 0.001
Any use of selected classes of pain relievers
Opioid analgesics
Immediate release	1.21	(0.0)	3.37	3.18-3.57	< 0.001
Extended release	1.40	(0.1)	4.06	3.67-4.48	< 0.001
NSAIDs	-0.08	(0.0)	0.92	0.86-0.98	0.011
Non-narcotic analgesics	-0.11	(0.1)	0.90	0.75-1.08	0.245
Antianxiety medications	0.62	(0.0)	1.86	1.74-1.98	< 0.001
Antidepressants	0.44	(0.0)	1.55	1.46-1.65	< 0.001
Antiepileptics	0.25	(0.0)	1.28	1.19-1.39	< 0.001
Muscle relaxants	0.25	(0.0)	1.28	1.19-1.38	< 0.001
Other pain relieversj	0.52	(0.0)	1.68	1.54-1.83	< 0.001
Baseline health care costs (thousands)k	0.00	(0.0)	1.00	1.00-1.00	0.012

^aA logistic regression model was estimated, with the dependent variable being an indicator of whether a patient was diagnosed with opioid abuse, dependence, or poisoning/overdose.

^bThe index date for abusers was defined as the date of first diagnosis of abuse, dependence, or poisoning/overdose in Q1 2012-Q1 2015. The index date for controls was defined as a random medical claim in Q1 2012-Q1 2015. This analysis was performed on the cohort of patients with ≥ 12 months of continuous coverage before the index date.

^cPatient characteristics were evaluated on the index date.

^dNortheast: CT, MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, VT; Midwest: IA, IL, IN, KS, MI, MN, MO, ND, NE, OH, SD, WI; South: AL, AR, DC, DE, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA, WV; West: AK, AZ, CA, CO, HI, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY.

^eOther statuses include terminated, COBRA, surviving dependent, deceased, summarized, mixed status, coverage cancelled, and temporary employee.

^fOther relationships include sponsored, class II dependent, and handicapped.

^gComorbidities were evaluated during the baseline period. The baseline period was defined as the period between 12 months and 6 months before the index date.

^hHealth care resource use measures were evaluated during the baseline period. The baseline period was defined as the period between 12 months and 6 months before the index date.

ⁱIdentified using 9-digit NDC numbers.

^jOther pain relievers include tramadol, butorphanol, pentazocine, nalbuphine, and dihydrocodeine.

^kHealth care costs were inflated to 2015 values using the medical care component of the Consumer Price Index.

AIDS = acquired immune deficiency syndrome; CCI = Charlson Comorbidity Index; CI = confidence interval; ED = emergency department; HIV = human immunodeficiency virus; NDC = National Drug Code; NSAID = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug; OR = odds ratio; Q = quarter; SE = standard error; U.S. = United States.