TABLE 3.
Adjusted Per-Patient Total Annual Prescription Opioid Costs by Patient Demographic and Utilization Characteristics (N = 197,062)
| Independent Variable | Mean Cost Difference, $a (95% CI) | Adjusted β coefficientb | Standard Error | 95% CI |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intercept | 64.17 (62.25, 66.10) | 3.8415 | 0.0136 | (3.8149, 3.8680) |
| Age group (years) | ||||
| 65+ | Reference | |||
| < 18 | -45.89 (-48.09, -43.68) | -1.1680 | 0.0243 | (-1.2157, -1.1204) |
| 18-24 | -50.22 (-52.13, -48.31) | -1.2910 | 0.0173 | (-1.3250, -1.2571) |
| 25-34 | -42.10 (-44.04, -40.17) | -0.7492 | 0.0150 | (-0.7786, -0.7198) |
| 35-44 | -11.89 (-14.20, -9.59) | -0.0415 | 0.0149 | (-0.0706, -0.0124) |
| 45-54 | 17.65 (15.26, 20.04) | 0.4257 | 0.0139 | (0.3985, 0.4530) |
| 55-64 | 28.47 (26.06, 30.88) | 0.5621 | 0.0137 | (0.5353, 0.5888) |
| Gender | ||||
| Female | Reference | |||
| Male | 5.14 (4.44, 5.84) | 0.1364 | 0.0070 | (0.1228, 0.1501) |
| Payment typec | ||||
| Commercial | Reference | |||
| Medicaid | 0.56 (-0.51, 1.63) | 0.1733 | 0.0129 | (0.1481, 0.1986) |
| Medicare | 33.20 (31.05, 35.35) | 0.6971 | 0.0127 | (0.6722, 0.7220) |
| Private pay | -3.80 (-4.69, -2.91) | -0.1917 | 0.0129 | (-0.2170, -0.1663) |
| Otherd | 9.16 (5.17, 13.15) | 0.2988 | 0.0250 | (0.2498, 0.3479) |
| Mean daily MME per patient | ||||
| ≤ 50 | Reference | |||
| 50-90 | 97.91 (95.14, 100.68) | 1.0756 | 0.0092 | (1.0575, 1.0938) |
| > 90 | 337.73 (332.84, 342.62) | 3.1124 | 0.0168 | (3.0795, 3.1453) |
| Benzodiazepine usee | ||||
| No | Reference | |||
| Yes (n = 52,163) | 35.99 (34.45, 37.54) | 0.6980 | 0.0079 | (0.6825, 0.7135) |
| Stimulant usee | ||||
| No | Reference | |||
| Yes (n = 8,719) | 8.61 (6.47, 10.76) | 0.4062 | 0.0167 | (0.3735, 0.4390) |
| 5/5/12 criteriaf | ||||
| Not met | Reference | |||
| Met (n = 409) | 863.58 (689.48, 037.68) | 1.4672 | 0.0741 | (1.3220, 1.6125) |
aMean cost per patient was estimated using the identity link function.
bCoefficients of gamma regression and standard errors were estimated using the log link function.
cIf patient age was ≥ 65 years with commercial insurance, then payment method was reclassified as Medicare.
dIncludes worker’s compensation, Indian Health Services, Veterans Health Administration, Tricare, and other federal sources.
eUse of other benzodiazepines and stimulants was defined as 1 or more prescriptions in a 12-month period.
f5/5/12/ criteria: opioid prescriptions from at least 5 different pharmacies and 5 different prescribers during the 12-month period.
CI = confidence interval; MME = morphine milligram equivalent.