. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Aug 3.

Published in final edited form as: Appl Econ Perspect Policy. 2021 Sep 21;44(4):2087–2114. doi: 10.1002/aepp.13194

TABLE 3.

OLS relationships between pesticide exposure and ln(wages), by pay basis and legal status

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)
Variables	All	All	Piece rate	Piece rate	Hourly	Hourly	Undocumented	Undocumented	Documented	Documented
Pesticides	0.0563^***	0.0703^***	0.100	0.0870	0.0590^***	0.0650^***	0.0319^***	0.0482^***	0.0656^***	0.0763^***
	(0.00746)	(0.00728)	(0.109)	(0.102)	(0.00690)	(0.00642)	(0.0101)	(0.0113)	(0.0100)	(0.00930)
Female	0.0751^***	0.0715^***	0.119^**	0.124^***	0.0555^***	0.0546^***	0.0687^***	0.0663^***	0.0767^***	0.0712^***
	(0.00718)	(0.00757)	(0.0517)	(0.0354)	(0.00505)	(0.00486)	(0.0107)	(0.0104)	(0.00884)	(0.00867)
Age (years)	7.65e–05	5.35e–05	0.00461^***	0.00428^***	0.000586^***	0.000464^**	0.000210	0.000148	0.000183	3.80e–05
	(0.000256)	(0.000251)	(0.00153)	(0.00137)	(0.000225)	(0.000206)	(0.000373)	(0.000362)	(0.000354)	(0.000344)
Education (years)	0.0101^***	0.00917^***	0.0217^**	0.0168^**	0.00782^***	0.00607^***	0.00691^***	0.00623^**	0.0142^***	0.0131^***
	(0.00133)	(0.00142)	(0.00940)	(0.00669)	(0.000672)	(0.000625)	(0.00211)	(0.00243)	(0.00141)	(0.00131)
Farm experience (years)	0.00213^***	0.00177^***	0.00624^**	0.00635^**	0.000731^**	0.000606^**	0.00374^***	0.00209^*	0.00199^***	0.00215^***
	(0.000403)	(0.000397)	(0.00271)	(0.00260)	(0.000334)	(0.000295)	(0.000907)	(0.00115)	(0.000477)	(0.000435)
Tenure (years)	0.00644^***	0.00657^***	0.00804^**	0.00980^***	0.00674^***	0.00640^***	0.00769^***	0.00858^***	0.00619^***	0.00586^***
	(0.000502)	(0.000477)	(0.00332)	(0.00317)	(0.000457)	(0.000427)	(0.00101)	(0.000981)	(0.000566)	(0.000526)
Has spouse in the United	0.0502^***	0.0475^***	0.0289	0.0175	0.0493^***	0.0438^***	0.0226^**	0.0170^*	0.0769^***	0.0719^***
States	(0.00642)	(0.00616)	(0.0389)	(0.0343)	(0.00509)	(0.00469)	(0.00935)	(0.00879)	(0.00872)	(0.00808)
Children (number)	0.0102^***	0.00954^***	0.00594	0.0113	0.00889^***	0.00822^***	0.00683	0.00432	0.0120^***	0.0138^***
	(0.00249)	(0.00228)	(0.0171)	(0.0122)	(0.00189)	(0.00176)	(0.00462)	(0.00401)	(0.00309)	(0.00283)
Naturalized citizen	0.0546^***	0.0514^***	0.0589	0.0199	0.0607^***	0.0531^***			0.0683^***	0.0544^***
	(0.0156)	(0.0150)	(0.157)	(0.153)	(0.0130)	(0.0125)			(0.0213)	(0.0198)
Green Card or other author	0.00480	0.00661	0.120	0.0301	0.00499	0.00881			0.0224	0.0181
	(0.0160)	(0.0153)	(0.0998)	(0.0975)	(0.0116)	(0.0108)			(0.0244)	(0.0224)
Undocumented	0.00325	0.0117	0.00164	0.0349	0.00680	0.000392
	(0.0151)	(0.0148)	(0.0966)	(0.0979)	(0.0119)	(0.0112)
Speaks English	0.0242^***	0.0209^***	0.0755	0.0792	0.0405^***	0.0336^***	0.0255^**	0.0248^**	0.0200^*	0.0165
	(0.00804)	(0.00757)	(0.0553)	(0.0484)	(0.00620)	(0.00574)	(0.0117)	(0.0112)	(0.0116)	(0.0109)
From Mexico	0.0108	0.0287^***	0.00530	0.0362	0.0196^**	0.0335^***	0.00988	0.0269^**	0.0126	0.0178
	(0.0107)	(0.0103)	(0.0609)	(0.0628)	(0.00830)	(0.00788)	(0.0122)	(0.0117)	(0.0212)	(0.0198)
Constant	2.119^***	2.244^***	2.261^***	2.879^***	2.085^***	2.240^***	2.137^***	2.244^***	2.066^***	2.192^***
	(0.0206)	(0.0224)	(0.128)	(0.262)	(0.0142)	(0.0166)	(0.0222)	(0.0290)	(0.0234)	(0.0269)
Crop, task, year, and region fixed effects?	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes
Observations	32,242	32,242	2725	2725	27,369	27,369	16,191	16,191	16,050	16,050
R2	0.163	0.229	0.094	0.216	0.226	0.341	0.089	0.180	0.165	0.238

Source: NAWS and author calculations, robust standard errors in parentheses.

^***

p < 0.01.

^**

p < 0.05.

p < 0.1.