Table 1.
| Participant Characteristics | Loneliness |
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Group 1 (n = 2615) |
Group 2 (n = 6011) |
Group 3 (n = 1824) |
||||
| No. (%) | Mean (SD) | No. (%) | Mean (SD) | No. (%) | Mean (SD) | |
| Sociodemographic factors | ||||||
| Age (yr; range: 48–96) | 67.2 (9.0) | 67.4 (9.6) | 64.9 (9.3) | |||
| Female (%) | 1646 (62.9) | 3572 (59.4) | 1064 (58.3) | |||
| Race/Ethnicity (%) | ||||||
| White | 2162 (82.7) | 4455 (74.1) | 1282 (70.3) | |||
| Black | 262 (10.0) | 835 (13.9) | 287 (15.7) | |||
| Hispanic | 143 (5.5) | 561 (9.3) | 202 (11.1) | |||
| Other | 47 (1.8) | 158 (2.6) | 53 (2.9) | |||
| Married (%) | 1941 (74.2) | 3804 (63.3) | 971 (53.3) | |||
| Annual Household Income (%) | ||||||
| <$50,000 | 1191 (45.5) | 3424 (57.0) | 1227 (67.3) | |||
| $50,000–$74,999 | 484 (18.5) | 970 (16.1) | 252 (13.8) | |||
| $75,000–$99,999 | 298 (11.4) | 592 (9.9) | 139 (7.6) | |||
| ≥$100,000 | 642 (24.6) | 1025 (17.1) | 206 (11.3) | |||
| Total Wealth (%) | ||||||
| 1st Quintile | 269 (10.3) | 1093 (18.2) | 567 (31.1) | |||
| 2nd Quintile | 396 (15.1) | 1209 (20.1) | 428 (23.5) | |||
| 3rd Quintile | 547 (20.9) | 1221 (20.3) | 348 (19.1) | |||
| 4th Quintile | 649 (24.8) | 1248 (20.8) | 266 (14.6) | |||
| 5th Quintile | 754 (28.8) | 1240 (20.6) | 215 (11.8) | |||
| Education (%) | ||||||
| <High School | 243 (9.3) | 960 (16.0) | 393 (21.6) | |||
| High School | 1411 (54.2) | 3366 (56.1) | 1015 (55.8) | |||
| ≥College | 951 (36.5) | 1671 (27.9) | 412 (22.6) | |||
| Employed (%) | 1149 (44.0) | 2517 (42.9) | 744 (40.8) | |||
| Health Insurance (%) | 2521 (96.5) | 5632 (93.8) | 1637 (89.9) | |||
| Geographic Region (%) | ||||||
| Northeast | 375 (14.3) | 858 (14.3) | 276 (15.2) | |||
| Midwest | 681 (26.0) | 1623 (27.0) | 448 (24.6) | |||
| South | 1043 (39.9) | 2337 (38.9) | 742 (40.8) | |||
| West | 516 (19.7) | 1186 (19.8) | 354 (19.5) | |||
| Childhood Abuse (%) | 145 (5.6) | 433 (7.3) | 218 (12.1) | |||
| Physical Health | ||||||
| Diabetes (%) | 373 (14.3) | 1222 (20.4) | 428 (23.5) | |||
| Hypertension (%) | 1384 (53.0) | 3363 (56.0) | 1094 (60.0) | |||
| Stroke (%) | 120 (4.6) | 361 (6.0) | 142 (7.8) | |||
| Cancer (%) | 380 (14.5) | 832 (13.9) | 216 (11.9) | |||
| Heart Disease (%) | 485 (18.6) | 1280 (21.3) | 415 (22.8) | |||
| Lung Disease (%) | 147 (5.6) | 479 (8.0) | 205 (11.2) | |||
| Arthritis (%) | 1416 (54.2) | 3549 (59.1) | 1092 (59.9) | |||
| Overweight/Obesity (%) | 1806 (70.0) | 4368 (73.3) | 1348 (75.1) | |||
| Physical Function Limitations (%) | 329 (12.6) | 1150 (19.1) | 571 (31.3) | |||
| Cognitive impairment (%) | 238 (9.2) | 881 (14.8) | 363 (20.1) | |||
| Chronic Pain (%) | 680 (26.0) | 2127 (35.4) | 845 (46.3) | |||
| Self-Rated Health (range: 1–5) | 3.6 (0.9) | 3.3 (1.0) | 2.8 (1.1) | |||
| Health Behaviors | ||||||
| Heavy Drinking (%) | 189 (8.9) | 365 (7.5) | 122 (8.4) | |||
| Smoking (%) | 241 (9.3) | 723 (12.1) | 341 (18.8) | |||
| Frequent Physical Activity (%) | 2095 (80.2) | 4458 (74.2) | 1190 (65.3) | |||
| Sleep Problems (%) | 478 (33.5) | 1348 (39.7) | 532 (52.6) | |||
| Religious Service Attendance (%) | ||||||
| More than once a week | 566 (21.66) | 961 (16.0) | 208 (11.4) | |||
| Once a week | 763 (29.2) | 1635 (27.2) | 366 (20.1) | |||
| 2–3 times a month | 292 (11.2) | 707 (11.8) | 227 (12.5) | |||
| One or more times a year | 506 (19.4) | 1215 (20.2) | 407 (22.3) | |||
| Not at all | 486 (18.6) | 1489 (24.8) | 614 (33.7) | |||
| Psychological Well-Being | ||||||
| Positive Affect (range: 1–5) | 4.1 (0.6) | 3.6 (0.7) | 2.9 (0.8) | |||
| Life Satisfaction (range: 1–7) | 5.8 (1.2) | 5.0 (1.4) | 3.9 (1.6) | |||
| Optimism (range: 1–6) | 5.1 (0.8) | 4.5 (0.9) | 3.8 (1.0) | |||
| Purpose in Life (range: 1–6) | 5.2 (0.7) | 4.7 (0.9) | 4.1 (1.0) | |||
| Mastery (range: 1–6) | 5.2 (0.9) | 4.8 (1.0) | 4.3 (1.1) | |||
| Health Mastery (range: 1–10) | 8.1 (1.8) | 7.4 (2.2) | 6.5 (2.6) | |||
| Financial Mastery (range: 1–10) | 8.0 (2.0) | 7.3 (2.5) | 5.9 (3.0) | |||
| Psychological Distress | ||||||
| Depression (%) | 98 (3.8) | 684 (11.4) | 563 (30.9) | |||
| Depressive Symptoms (range: 0–8) | 0.5 (1.0) | 1.2 (1.7) | 2.5 (2.5) | |||
| Hopelessness (range: 1–6) | 1.6 (0.8) | 2.3 (1.2) | 3.3 (1.3) | |||
| Negative Affect (range: 1–5) | 1.4 (0.4) | 1.7 (0.5) | 2.2 (0.8) | |||
| Perceived Constraints (range: 1–6) | 1.5 (0.8) | 2.1 (1.1) | 3.0 (1.3) | |||
| Social Factors | ||||||
| Social Isolation | −0.2 (0.4) | 0.03 (0.5) | 0.3 (0.5) | |||
| Personality | ||||||
| Openness (range: 1–4) | 3.1 (0.5) | 2.9 (0.5) | 2.7 (0.6) | |||
| Conscientiousness (range: 1–4) | 3.6 (0.4) | 3.4 (0.4) | 3.2 (0.5) | |||
| Extraversion (range: 1–4) | 3.5 (0.5) | 3.2 (0.5) | 2.7 (0.6) | |||
| Agreeableness (range: 1–4) | 3.7 (0.4) | 3.5 (0.5) | 3.3 (0.6) | |||
| Neuroticism (range: 1–4) | 1.7 (0.5) | 2.0 (0.6) | 2.4 (0.7) | |||
a
This table was created based on non-imputed data.
b
All variables in Table 1 were used as covariates, and assessed in the pre-baseline wave (t0;2008/2010).
c
The percentages in some sections may not add up to 100% due to rounding.