Table 2.
| Participant Characteristics | Social Isolation |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Group 1 (n = 1593) |
Group 2 (n = 7184) |
Group 3 (n = 1800) |
||||
| No. (%) | Mean (SD) | No. (%) | Mean (SD) | No. (%) | Mean (SD) | |
| Sociodemographic factors | ||||||
| Age (yr; range: 48–96) | 68.0 (8.9) | 66.9 (9.5) | 66.1 (9.9) | |||
| Female (%) | 996 (62.5) | 4347 (60.5) | 1022 (56.8) | |||
| Race/Ethnicity (%) | ||||||
| White | 1176 (73.8) | 5457 (76.0) | 1330 (74.0) | |||
| Black | 243 (15.3) | 935 (13.0) | 233 (13.0) | |||
| Hispanic | 140 (8.8) | 618 (8.6) | 182 (10.1) | |||
| Other | 34 (2.1) | 173 (2.4) | 53 (3.0) | |||
| Married (%) | 1430 (89.8) | 4802 (66.9) | 538 (29.9) | |||
| Annual Household Income (%) | ||||||
| <$50,000 | 764 (48.0) | 3875 (53.9) | 1299 (72.2) | |||
| $50,000–$74,999 | 276 (17.3) | 1207 (16.8) | 235 (13.1) | |||
| $75,000–$99,999 | 184 (11.6) | 741 (10.3) | 109 (6.1) | |||
| ≥$100,000 | 369 (23.2) | 1361 (18.9) | 157 (8.7) | |||
| Total Wealth (%) | ||||||
| 1st Quintile | 148 (9.3) | 1198 (16.7) | 622 (34.6) | |||
| 2nd Quintile | 274 (17.2) | 1361 (18.9) | 429 (23.8) | |||
| 3rd Quintile | 330 (20.72) | 1484 (20.7) | 323 (17.9) | |||
| 4th Quintile | 391 (24.5) | 1544 (21.5) | 246 (13.7) | |||
| 5th Quintile | 450 (28.3) | 1597 (22.2) | 180 (10.0) | |||
| Education (%) | ||||||
| <High School | 191 (12.0) | 1079 (15.1) | 372 (20.7) | |||
| High School | 799 (50.3) | 4008 (56.0) | 1042 (58.0) | |||
| ≥College | 600 (37.7) | 2076 (29.0) | 382 (21.3) | |||
| Employed (%) | 642 (40.3) | 3091 (43.0) | 716 (39.8) | |||
| Health Insurance (%) | 1523 (95.7) | 6743 (94.0) | 1631 (90.7) | |||
| Geographic Region (%) | ||||||
| Northeast | 192 (12.1) | 1043 (14.5) | 293 (16.3) | |||
| Midwest | 449 (28.2) | 1899 (26.5) | 433 (24.1) | |||
| South | 683 (42.9) | 2824 (39.4) | 673 (37.4) | |||
| West | 267 (16.8) | 1410 (19.7) | 399 (22.2) | |||
| Childhood Abuse (%) | 96 (6.1) | 512 (7.2) | 197 (11.1) | |||
| Physical Health | ||||||
| Diabetes (%) | 283 (17.8) | 1352 (18.8) | 418 (23.2) | |||
| Hypertension (%) | 884 (55.5) | 3975 (55.4) | 1052 (58.5) | |||
| Stroke (%) | 72 (4.5) | 415 (5.8) | 142 (7.9) | |||
| Cancer (%) | 207 (13.0) | 999 (13.9) | 237 (13.2) | |||
| Heart Disease (%) | 309 (19.4) | 1508 (21.0) | 389 (21.7) | |||
| Lung Disease (%) | 88 (5.5) | 532 (7.4) | 223 (12.4) | |||
| Arthritis (%) | 929 (58.4) | 4149 (57.8) | 1056 (58.8) | |||
| Overweight/Obesity (%) | 1165 (73.8) | 5181 (72.9) | 1268 (71.6) | |||
| Physical Function Limitations (%) | 220 (13.8) | 1335 (18.6) | 535 (29.7) | |||
| Cognitive impairment (%) | 181 (11.5) | 989 (13.9) | 348 (19.6) | |||
| Chronic Pain (%) | 479 (30.1) | 2445 (34.1) | 772 (42.9) | |||
| Self-Rated Health (range: 1–5) | 3.5 (1.0) | 3.3 (1.0) | 2.9 (1.1) | |||
| Health Behaviors | ||||||
| Heavy Drinking (%) | 64 (4.8) | 477 (8.3) | 138 (9.4) | |||
| Smoking (%) | 70 (4.4) | 811 (11.4) | 439 (24.5) | |||
| Frequent Physical Activity (%) | 1299 (81.6) | 5414 (75.5) | 1118 (62.2) | |||
| Sleep Problems (%) | 320 (36.0) | 1505 (38.9) | 555 (49.3) | |||
| Religious Service Attendance (%) | ||||||
| More than once a week | 772 (48.5) | 953 (13.3) | 28 (1.6) | |||
| Once a week | 605 (38.0) | 2100 (29.3) | 101 (5.6) | |||
| 2–3 times a month | 115 (7.2) | 983 (13.7) | 144 (8.0) | |||
| One or more times a year | 76 (4.8) | 1668 (23.2) | 408 (22.7) | |||
| Not at all | 25 (1.6) | 1473 (20.5) | 1117 (62.1) | |||
| Psychological Well-Being | ||||||
| Positive Affect (range: 1–5) | 3.9 (0.7) | 3.6 (0.8) | 3.2 (0.8) | |||
| Life Satisfaction (range: 1–7) | 5.5 (1.4) | 5.0 (1.5) | 4.2 (1.6) | |||
| Optimism (range: 1–6) | 4.8 (0.9) | 4.6 (0.9) | 4.0 (1.0) | |||
| Purpose in Life (range: 1–6) | 5.05 (0.8) | 4.8 (0.9) | 4.3 (1.0) | |||
| Mastery (range: 1–6) | 5.0 (1.0) | 4.8 (1.1) | 4.6 (1.2) | |||
| Health Mastery (range: 1–10) | 7.8 (2.0) | 7.4 (2.2) | 7.0 (2.6) | |||
| Financial Mastery (range: 1–10) | 7.6 (2.2) | 7.3 (2.5) | 6.7 (3.0) | |||
| Psychological Distress | ||||||
| Depression (%) | 113 (7.1) | 851 (11.9) | 409 (22.7) | |||
| Depressive Symptoms (range: 0–8) | 0.8 (1.5) | 1.2 (1.8) | 2.0 (2.3) | |||
| Hopelessness (range: 1–6) | 1.9 (1.0) | 2.2 (1.2) | 2.9 (1.4) | |||
| Negative Affect (range: 1–5) | 1.6 (0.5) | 1.7 (0.6) | 1.9 (0.7) | |||
| Perceived Constraints (range: 1–6) | 1.9 (1.0) | 2.1 (1.1) | 2.5 (1.3) | |||
| Social Factors | ||||||
| Loneliness (range: 1–3) | 1.3 (0.3) | 1.5 (0.4) | 1.8 (0.5) | |||
| Personality | ||||||
| Openness (range: 1–4) | 3.1 (0.5) | 2.9 (0.5) | 2.8 (0.6) | |||
| Conscientiousness (range: 1–4) | 3.5 (0.4) | 3.4 (0.5) | 3.3 (0.5) | |||
| Extraversion (range: 1–4) | 3.4 (0.5) | 3.2 (0.5) | 2.9 (0.6 | |||
| Agreeableness (range: 1–4) | 3.7 (0.4) | 3.5 (0.5) | 3.4 (0.5) | |||
| Neuroticism (range: 1–4) | ||||||
a
This table was created based on non-imputed data.
b
All variables in Table 1 were used as covariates, and assessed in the pre-baseline wave (t0;2008/2010).
c
The percentages in some sections may not add up to 100% due to rounding.