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Cluster 1—Psychological Attributes
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| PAIN BELIEFS |
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| Fear avoidance
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ALBPSQ—Acute Low Back Pain Screening Questionnaire (assesses psychological yellow flags) FABQ—Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire BBQ—Back Belief Questionnaire Bac-PAQ—Back-Pain Attitudes Questionnaire LBP-TBQ—Low Back Pain Treatment Beliefs Questionnaire TSK—Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia (fear of movement) PIPS—Psychological Inflexibility Pain Scale OMPSQ—Orebro Musculoskeletal Pain Screening Questionnaire FPQ—Fear of Pain Questionnaire
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| Catastrophizing
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| Pain beliefs
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PBPI—Pain Beliefs and Perception Inventory PSEQ—Pain Self-Efficacy Beliefs Questionnaire PBSI—Pain Belief Screening Instrument GSE—Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale IPQ—Illness Perception Questionnaire SOPA—Survey of Pain Attitudes
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| Patient expectations
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CEQ—Credibility/Expectancy Questionnaire |
| COPING SKILLS |
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| Coping strategies / reaction to pain
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ALBPSQ—Acute Low Back Pain Screening Questionnaire CPCI—Chronic Pain Coping Inventory HKF-R 10 INTERMED PPS—LBP Patient Perception Scale VPMI—Vanderbilt Pain Management Inventory CSQ—Coping Strategies Questionnaire PROMIS-29 PCS—Pain Catastrophizing Scale
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| Emotional support system / psychosocial aspects
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ALBPSQ—Acute Low Back Pain Screening Questionnaire CPCI—Chronic Pain Coping Inventory VDPQ—Vermont Disability Prediction Questionnaire ERQ—Emotional Regulations Questionnaire
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| Stress
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PSS—Perceived Stress Scale |
| Coping
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PSEQ—Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (assesses confidence in continuing activities in spite of pain; self-efficacy, pain-related coping strategies) |
| Acceptance
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CPAQ—Chronic Pain Acceptance Questionnaire (activity engagement, pain willingness) AAQ-II—Acceptance and Action Questionnaire
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| AFFECTIVE STATE |
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| Depression
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ALBPSQ—Acute Low Back Pain Screening Questionnaire HKF-R 10 CES-D—Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Questionnaire PHQ-9, PHQ-4—Patient Health Questionnaire PROMIS-4 DASS-21—Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 OMPQ—Orebro Musculoskeletal Pain Questionnaire
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| Anxiety
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HADS—Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (state of depression and anxiety) STAI—State Trait Anxiety Inventory SCL-90-R—Revised symptom checklist 90 questionnaire (somatization, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression) GAD-7—Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale PROMIS-4 SBT—Keele Start Back Tool
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| Pain somatization
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SSI—Symptom Severity Index |
| Positive affect
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| PERSONALITY TRAITS |
NEO-PI R—Revised Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Personality Inventory TSK—Tampa Scale or Kinesiophobia (fear of movement and re-injury) HADS—Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (state of depression and anxiety) State-Trait Anxiety Inventory STAI -Y2—Trait Anxiety Score IPIP-NEO—International Personality Item Pool Representation (five factors: extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience) LOT-R—Life Orientation Test (measure of optimism) ERQ—Emotional Regulations Questionnaire
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| PSYCHOLOGICAL RESOURCES |
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| Negative psychological state
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| Mindfulness
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FFMQ—Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire |
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Cluster 2—Biomechanical Attributes
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| PHYSICAL ACTIVITY |
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| Physical functioning / activities of daily living
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ALBPSQ—Acute Low Back Pain Screening Questionnaire CPCI—Chronic Pain Coping Inventory PPS—LBP Patient Perception Scale GPAQ—General Physical Activity Questionnaire PARS—Physical Activity Rating Scale 7-Day Physical Activity Recall Questionnaire Baecke Physical Activity Questionnaire Treadmill, bicycle test
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| Real-world measurements
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Actigraphy Accelerometry Physical activity diary Pedometer
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| SENSORIMOTOR CONTROL |
APAs—anticipatory Postural Adjustments CPAs—compensatory Postural Adjustments Standing static balance EMG—trunk muscle activity patterns during gait AJRS—active joint repositioning sense PJRS—passive joint repositioning sense JRE—Joint Repositioning Error TTDPM—Threshold to Detection of Passive Motion RE—Lumbar repositioning error Lumbar multifidus thickness and cross-sectional area (CSA)
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| LOAD, OCCUPATION |
VDPQ—Vermont Disability Prediction Questionnaire MFI—Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory ALBPSQ—Acute Low Back Screening Questionnaire
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| TISSUE TOLERANCE |
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Cluster 3—Societal Attributes
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| SOCIODEMOGRAPHICS |
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| Sociodemographic factors
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ALBPSQ—Acute Low Back Pain Screening Questionnaire OMPQ—Orebro Musculoskeletal Pain Questionnaire Linton Screening Questionnaire for Predicting Outcome in Acute and Subacute Back Pain VDPQ—Vermont Disability Prediction Questionnaire HKF-R 10
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| Emotional and social support systems
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ALBPSQ—Acute Low Back Screening Questionnaire CPCI—Chronic Pain Coping Inventory VDPQ—Vermont Disability Prediction Questionnaire
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| OCCUPATION |
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| Work characteristics and work-related attitudes
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ALBPSQ—Acute Low Back Pain Screening Questionnaire VDPQ—Vermont Disability Prediction Questionnaire SQ—Absenteeism Screening Questionnaire
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| Fatigue
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MFI—Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory (measures five dimensions: general, physical, motivation, activity, mental) |
| PERSONAL/MEDICAL HISTORY |
COPCs—Chronic Overlapping Pain Condition Screener SF-36—Rand Medical Outcomes 36-Item Short Form Survey Instrument (general health-related quality of life) EuroQOL—General Health SBT—Keele Start Back Tool Mancuso (expectations about symptom relief, return to function, improved psychological well-being after spine surgery) MSPQ—Medicare Secondary Payor Questionnaire HKF-R 10 VDPQ—Vermont Disability Prediction Questionnaire INTERMED Questionnaire Elixhauser Comorbidity Index PRICE—Pain Recovery Inventory of Concerns and Expectations CCI—Charlson Comorbidity Index COMM—Current Opioid Misuse Measure QTFC—Quebec Task Force Classification SFI—Sciatica Frequency Index SOAPP—Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients in Pain TLFB—Timeline Followback PC-PTSD-5—Primary Care PTSD Screen
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Cluster 4—Systemic Attributes
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| INFLAMMATION |
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Cluster 5—Familial Attributes
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| GENETICS |
Biosample analysis |
| DEMOGRAPHICS |
Demographic questionnaires |
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Cluster 6—Central Schema Attributes
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| ANATOMY |
MRI—magnetic resonance imaging
X-ray |
| PERIPHERAL STIMULUS |
Provocative/analgesic injections MRI—magnetic resonance imaging Pain diagrams, maps, location
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| NOCICEPTION AND NEUROPATHIC PAIN |
PDQ—PainDETECT questionnaire NPQ—Neuropathic Pain Questionnaire LANSS—Leeds Assessment of Neuropathic Symptoms & Signs DN4—Douleur neuropathique 4 StEP—Standardized Evaluation of Pain
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| CENTRAL PAIN PROCESSING |
QST—quantitative sensory testing fMRI—functional magnetic resonance imaging MRI—brain anatomy; gray and white matter areas; functional connectivity (brain activity) EEG—functional brain alterations
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| PAIN PERCEPTION |
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| Aspects of pain
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ALBPSQ—Acute Low Back Pain Screening Questionnaire HKF-R 10 INTERMED Questionnaire PPS—LBP Pain Perception Scale VDPQ—Vermont Disability Prediction Questionnaire NRS/NPRS—numeric rating scale for pain MPQ—McGill Pain Questionnaire (multidimensional measure of pain) MAIA—Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness IPQ—Illness Perception Questionnaire Pain body map
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| PAIN EXPERIENCE |
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| Pain intensity
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NRS—numeric rating scale SF36—Bodily Pain Scale LBPRS—Low Back Pain Rating Scale PROMIS-29 SF-MPQ—Short-form McGill Pain Questionnaire MDS—Minimum Data Set (indicator of persistent pain) VAS—visual analog scale Graded Chronic Pain Scale Descriptor Differential Scale
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| Pain experience
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MPI—Multidimensional Pain Inventory (severity, interference, life control, affective distress) PGRC—Pain Global Rating of Change (overall impression of change in patient’s pain) QTFC—Quebec Back Pain Disability Scale SFI—Sciatica Frequency Index
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| Cognitive fatigue
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FSMC—Fatigue Scale for Motor and Cognitive Functions SF36—Energy/Fatigue subscale MFI—Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory (measures five dimensions: general, physical, motivation, activity, mental) SSI—Symptom Severity Index (scores problems with fatigue, cognitive dysfunction, unrefreshed sleep)
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| Pain location/duration
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| FUNCTIONAL CONSEQUENCE |
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| Disability
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ODI—Oswestry Disability Index Questionnaire (assesses pain-related disability) Quebec Back Pain Disability Scale (measures level of functional disability) RMDQ—Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire (pain-specific measure of physical disability) WDI—Waddell Disability Index (assesses basic physical activities of daily living commonly restricted by low back pain) SF-36 (eight domains of general health) SF-12 (shortened form of SF-36 quality-of-life measure) LBPRS—Low Back Pain Rating Scale DPQ—Dallas Score (how chronic pain affects activities of daily living) PBFS—Back Pain Functional Scale PROMIS-29 GCPS—Graded Chronic Pain Scale ISS—Impact Stratification Score (based on nine items from PROMIS 29) SBT—Keele Start Back Tool SOSG—Spine Oncology Study Group Outcomes Questionnaire EQ-5D (five dimensions of quality of life: mobility, self-care, usual activities, pain/discomfort, anxiety/depression) Hannover Functional Ability Questionnaire QTEC—Quebec Back Pain Disability Scale
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| Functional capacity tests
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| Pain interference
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PEG—Pain Intensity, interference with enjoyment of life, and interference with general activity BPI—Brief Pain Inventory (extent to which pain interferes with activities of daily living)
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| Physical functioning
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CIRS—Cumulative Illness Rating Scale CPG—Chronic Pain Guide questionnaire (intensity and disability) FMI—Functional Morbidity Index (ability to perform activities of daily living) ALBPSQ—Acute Low Back Pain Screening Questionnaire CPCI—Chronic Pain Coping Inventory PPS—LBP Patient Perception Scale PGIC—Patient Global Impression of Change
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