TABLE 2.
The beneficial effects and mechanism of action of ITCs on various models of Alzheimer’s disease.
| Compound or extract | Experimental model | Pharmacological effects | Mechanism of action | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 6-(Methylsulfinyl) hexyl ITC (6-MSITC) | in vitro, cell line | Slow down the progression of inflammation | Slow down pro inflammatory cytokines expression and increased Nrf2 | Chen et al. (2010) |
| in vitro, LPS activated murine macrophage RAW 264 cell line | Reduced neuroinflammation | Strongly suppressed COX-2, iNOS and cytokines and attenuated the expression of these factors | Uto et al. (2005) | |
| in vivo, murin AD model | Decreased apoptosis and neuroinflammation | Inhibited phosphorylation of ERK, GSK3, decreased inflammatory cytokines and activate of caspase | Morroni et al. (2018) | |
| in vitro, IMR-32 neuronal cell lines | Exerted neuroprotective effect by reducing oxidative stress | Targeted Nrf-2 mediated oxidative stress through changes in gene expression (DNA microarray) | Trio et al. (2016) | |
| Phenethyl ITC(PEITC) | in vitro, cell line | Decreased inflammation | Initiated Nrf2, modulate Nrf2/AER signalling pathway | Qin et al. (2015) |
| in vivo, transgenic mice model | Reduced inflammation, activated cytoprotective pathway | Restored Nrf2 expression | Boyanapalli et al. (2014), Dayalan Naidu et al. (2018) | |
| in vitro LPS-activated rat astrocytes | Anti-inflammatory | Downregulated MAPK/ERK signalling | Dayalan Naidu et al. (2018); Latronico et al. (2021) | |
| Moringin | in vivo, rat model | Enhanced cognition | Modulated Nrf2/AER pathway and pro inflammatory biomarkers | Galuppo et al. (2015) |
| in vivo, mouse model | Abolished inflammation | Modulated apoptotic pathway and downregulate pro inflammatory cytokines | Galuppo et al. (2014) | |
| in vitro, Aβinduced- SHSY5Y cells | Promoted neuronal repair and slowdown Alzheimer’s disease progression | Downregulated senescence, autophagy and mitophagy pathway | Silvestro et al. (2021) | |
| in vivo, lipopolysaccharide induced C57BL/6 mice model | Immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory | Decreased pro inflammatory biomarkers (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) in C2C12 myoblast, inhibited NF-kβ | Sailaja et al. (2022) | |
| Erucin | in vitro, cell line | Stopped inflammation | Counteracted pro inflammatory markers expression, inhibited NF-kβ signalling pathway | Yehuda et al. (2012); Qin et al. (2015) |
| in vitro, cell lines and in vivo, animal model | Decreased inflammation | Balanced Erk1/2, P38 and JNK signalling by Nrf2 pathway | Wagner et al. (2015) | |
| in vitro, LPS induced microglial cell line | Decreased inflammation | Decreased NO production, increased H2S levels | Sestito et al. (2019) | |
| Moringa oleifera extract | in vivo, colchicine and ethyl Choline induced rat model | Reduced neuronal cell death, ameliorated memory impairment and improved spatial memory | Upregulated phase II antioxidant enzymes, SOD and catalase | Ganguly and Guha. (2008); Sutalangka et al. (2013) |
| in vivo, cadmium and alcoholic beverage induced Wistar rats | Neuroprotection | Reduced the activated astrocytes in frontal cortex | Omotoso et al. (2019) | |
| in vitro primary hippocampal neurons culture | Promoted neurite outgrowth and promoted neuronal survival | Increased NSE, decreased GFAP | Hannan et al. (2014) | |
| in vivo, NDD/Al induced temporo-cortical degenerated mice model | Reduced neurodegeneration | AChE inhibitory activity | Ekong et al. (2017) | |
| in vivo, NDD/hippocampal neuro- degenerated rat model | Enhanced memory and cognition | Maintained neuron integrity and cholinergic transmission | Adebayo et al. (2021) | |
| in vivo, scopolamine induced mice model with spatial memory deficit | Improved spatial memory function | Altered the endogenous antioxidants, pro inflammatory mediators, elevatedAChE activity and promoted chromatolysis of cortical hippocample neurons | Onasanwo et al. (2021) | |
| in vivo lead acetate induced Wistar rat model | Ameliorated oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis | Protected neuronal cells via attenuation of NF-kβ signalling | Alqahtani and Albasher (2021) | |
| in vivo, CCl4 induced mice model | Modulated neuroinflammation and oxidative stress | Modulated TLR4/2MyD88/NF-kβ signalling | Mahmoud et al. (2022) | |
| Sulforaphane | in vitro, human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y) | Inhibited apoptosis | Modulated Bax/Bcl2 | Lee et al. (2013) |
| in vitro, murine neuroblastoma cell line (Neuro 2A and N1E-115) | Increased proteasome activity | Enhanced Nrf2 pathway | Park et al. (2009) | |
| in vivo, AlCl3 and D-galactose induced mice model | Ameliorated cognitive impairment | Modulated Nrf2/ARE pathway | Zhang et al. (2014) | |
| in vivo mice model | Reduced inflammatory markers in glial and hippocampal cells, protected neurons | ITH12674 (melatonin sulforaphan hybrid) induced Nrf2 and scavenged free radicals | Michalska et al. (2020) | |
| in vivo, scopolamine induced mice model (C57BL/6) and in vitro scopolamine treated primary cortical neurons | Improved memory, cognition and cholinergic neurotransmission | Inhibited Acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) | Lee et al. (2014) | |
| in vitro, Swedish mutant mouse model (N2a/APPswe cells) | Inhibited Aβ generated neuroinflammation and oxidation | Epigenetic modification of Nrf2 | Zhao et al. (2018) | |
| in vitro, human THP-1 macrophages (induced by Aβ1-42) | Suppressed neuroinflammation | Downregulated NF-kβ pathway and preserved MERTK | Jhang et al. (2018) | |
| in vitro, amyloid induced microglial cells | Induced neuroinflammation | Increased microglial phagocytic activity | Chilakala et al. (2020) | |
| in vitro, dopaminergic SH-SY5Y human cells and LPS stimulated microglial BV2 cells | Prevented mitochondrial impairment and suppress neuroinflammation | InhibitedHO-1 enzyme | Brasil et al. (2023) | |
| in vivo, LPS induced rat model | Reduced inflammation | Suppressed LPS induced NF-kβ pathway, modulated TRAF6 and RIPI ubiquitination by cezanne | Wang et al. (2020) | |
| Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) | in vitro, neuroinflammatory model (NDD/LPS induced N2a neuroblastoma, BV2 murine microglia and C6 glioma cells) | Improved outgrowth of neurite and dysregulated apoptotic pathway | Suppressed NF-kβ/TNF-α/JNK signalling | Subedi et al. (2017) |
| in vitro, cultured Schwann cells | Reduced neurogenic inflammation | Activated ROS dependent TRPA1 | De Logu et al. (2022a) | |
| in vitro, murine RAW264.7 macrophages cell line, in vivo C57BL/6 mice | Suppressed inflammation | Decreased NF-kβ, downregulated pro inflammatory cytokine (IL-1β) and nitric oxide synthase, increased Nrf-2 and heme-oxygenase-1 | Wagner et al. (2012) | |
| in vivo, cryogenic injury mice model | Increased plasticity markers level, regulate antioxidant genes | Decreased NF-kβ, GFAP, IL1β, IL-6, BBB permeability, increasing GAP43 and neural cell adhesion molecule | Caglayan et al. (2019) | |
| Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) | in vitro, NDD/LPS induced BV-2 microglia (hyper activated) | Anti-apoptotic and anti-n -euroinflammatory activity, reduced microglial activation in hippocampus | Inhibited NF-kβ | Lee et al. (2014) |
| in vitro, PC12 neuronal cells (NDD/glutamate excitotoxicity) | Inhibited apoptotic pathway | Inhibited caspase 8 and 3, scavenged ROS | Jeong et al. (2015) | |
| in vivo, mice model | Suppressed neuroinflammation and oxido-nitrosoactive stress in brain | Decreased BDNF, GSH, increased levels of nitrites, malondialdihyde IL-1β, TNF-α | Huang et al. (2022) |