TABLE 3.

Beneficial effects of ITCs against pathological hallmarks and their neurotoxicity.

Plant/Compound	Mechanism of action	Pharmacological effectiveness	Test scale	References
Against amyloid beta oligomerization and toxicity
Wasabia japonica (6-methylsulfinyl hexyl ITC)	Increased glutathione levels and ROS in hippocampus by Aβ1-42 injection were reduced	Neuroprotection against Aβ1-42 and ameliorates Aβ1-42 induced memory impairments	in-vivo, murine model, induced by intra cerebrovascular injection of Aβ1-42	Morroni et al. (2018)
Indole-3 carbinol (I3C)	High affinity molecular recognition and reduced Aβ fragments by heteromeric interaction	Reduced amyloid production	in-vitro, biochemical method	Cohen et al. (2006)
Moringa oleifera extract	Downregulated BACE1	Decreased Aβ production, rescued cognitive impairment and enhanced the reduced synaptic proteins synapsin, synapsophysin, PSD93 and PSD95	in-vivo, hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcY) induced AD model	Mahaman et al. (2018)
	Deactivated calpain by ↓ intracellular Ca 2+, reduced ca2+ signaling and prevent cell death	Decreased cytosolic cysteine protease caplain activity	in-vivo, hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) induced rat model (AD like pathology)	Mahaman et al. (2018)
	Increased Aβ immunoexpression was significantly abolished, sustained the brain-Zn content	Decreased the aggregation and accumulation of Aβ	in-vivo, ACR induced forty male Sprague Dawley rat treated with MO-ZnONP	Dahran et al. (2023)
Sulforaphane	Increased levels of HSP-70 co-chaperons and CHIP (Aβ metabolism influencers)	Reduced monomeric and polymeric forms of Aβ, but do not affect m-RNA expression, ameliorated memory deficits	in-vivo, triple transgenic mouse model (3×Tg-AD)	Li et al. (2018)
	Decreased oxidative stress and neuroinflammation (generator of Aβ)	Significantly inhibited Aβ aggregation, ameliorated neurobehavioral deficits peroxidation in brain	in-vivo, 6-month-old PS1V97L transgenic (Tg) mice	Zhang et al. (2015)
	Modulated the amyloid expression related markers, inhibited the overexpression of CDK5 in primary neurons	Reduced the Aβ1-42 deposition and related neurotoxicity	in-vivo, TgCRND8 transgenic mice model	Yang et al. (2023)
	Inhibited cathepsin-B and caspase-1 dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation induced by Aβ monomers (1–42)	Reduced Aβ induced neurotoxicity	in-vitro, human THP-1 macrophages like cells	An et al. (2016)
	Alleviated several downstream pathological changes including oxidative stress and neuroinflammation	Significantly inhibited the generation of Aβ aggregates promotes spatial learning and memory	in-vivo, PS1V97L transgenic mice model	Hou et al. (2018)
Against tau hyperphosphorylation and toxicity
Moringa oleifera extract	Not known	Decreased hyperphosphorylated tau at different sites (S-199, S-404, S-396 and T-231)	in-vivo, hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) induced rat model (AD like pathology)	Mahaman et al. (2018)
	Reduced sensory dysfunction and motor deficits, abolished immunoexpression of phosphorylated tau proteins	Reduced ACR induced neurotoxicity and tau proteins	in-vivo, ACR induced forty male Sprague Dawley rat treated with MO-ZnONP	Dahran et al. (2023)
Sulforaphane	Increased levels of HSP-70 co-chaperons and CHIP (Aβ metabolism influencers)	Reduced protein levels of tau and hyperphosphorylated tau, ameliorated memory deficits	in-vivo, triple transgenic mouse model (3×Tg-AD)	Lee et al. (2014)
	Suppressed phosphorylation of tau at specific sites, markedly suppressed the CDK5/p25	Reduced tau protein hyperphosphorylation in the brain and improved synaptic plasticity	in-vivo, TgCRND8 transgenic mice model	Yang et al. (2023)
	Altered phosphorylated tau at threonine 181 and serine991/202 distribution within astrocytes	Reduced hyperphosphorylated tau proteins in astrocytes under hypoglycaemic condition	in vitro, embryonic hippocampal rat astrocytes	Komiskey et al. (2022)
	Significantly inhibited hyperphosphorylated tau proteins at Ser396, Ser404 and Thr 205 site, enhanced the ration of p-GSK-3β(Ser9)/GSK-3β and p-Akt (Ser473)/Akt in hippocampus	Reduced the accumulation of phosphorylated tau in hippocampus and related toxicity	in-vivo,streptozotocin induced rat model	Yang et al. (2020)
	Significantly expressed the NDP52 induced by Nrf2 and facilitated clearance of p-tau proteins	Reduced the phosphorylated tau proteins	in-vivo, C57BL/6J mice model	Jo et al. (2014)