Skip to main content
. 2023 Jul 27;9(8):e18734. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18734

Table 2.

Preparation of Nanocellulose from Various Agricultural waste biomass.

Biomass/NC type Structural composition, %
 Extraction method Yield, % Properties Reference
Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin
Peach palm residue/CNC 44.59 27.05 3.22

  • Alkaline treatment: 5% NaOH and 10 drops CH3COOH, 80 °C, 2 h.

  • Delignification: 80% NaClO2, 80 °C, 1 h.

 28.9 Crystallinity: 49.8%–54.5%; Good thermal stability; width: approx. 100 nm [43]
Tea stalk/CNC 35.0 20.5 28.0

  • Cellulose isolation: H2O2 and CH3COOH, 60 °C, 24 h.

  • Acid hydrolysis: 60–65% (v/v) H2SO4, 40–50 °C, 90–150 min.

 49.9 TEM and AFM showed a short rod-like structure; width 4–8 nm; crystallinity: 68.33; good thermal stability [44]
Coconut coir/CNF – – 27.3

  • Dewaxing: benzene-ethanol

  • Ultrasonic-assisted solvent immersion: 0.5 M NaOH and 0.5 M CH3OH

  • Alkaline treatment: 60 °C, 2.5 h.

  • Bleaching: 5% NaClO2, 80 °C, 2 h.

  • TEMPO/NaClO/NaClO2

 – Average diameter: 5.6 nm; length: 150–350 nm; high zeta potential [45]
Rice husk/CNF 35.0 30.0 18.0

  • Delignification: 4 mol/L NaOH, 80 °C, 12 h.

  • Bleaching: 15% NaClO, 60 °C, 1 h.

 95.0 Crystallinity: 65%; particle thickness: 25–27 nm [46]
Corncob/CNF – – –

  • One step mechanochemical esterification - dispersion

 – Diameter: 1.5–2.8 nm; Tensile strength: 110–125 MPa; optical transparency up to 89% at 550 nm [47]
Pineapple peel/CNC – – –

  • Delignification: 7.5% (w/v) NaClO

  • Alkaline treatment: 10% (w/v) NaOH, 25 °C; 10 h

  • Acid hydrolysis: 64% H2SO4, 50 °C, 45 min

 – Diamater: 15 nm; length: 189 nm; higher thermal stability; needle-like structure; crystallinity: 61.19% [48]
Lime residue/CNF 11.46 10.18 7.29

  • Blender chopped

  • Autoclaved at 110–130 °C, 2 h.

 35.84 (autoclaving at 110 °C) Crystallinity index: 59–65%; diameter: 2–10 nm [49]
Asian pear peel residue/CNC 38.5 23.6 28.1

  • One-pot process: 30 wt% H2O2, 90 °C, 5 h; Cr(NO3)3 metal salt catalyst, 8% H2SO4, 82 °C, 1 h

 23.7 Crystallinity: 85.7%; spherical shaped with an aspect ratio of 24.6; low thermal stability [50]
Jackfruit peel/CNC – – –

  • Steam exploded: 4% soapnut solution, autoclaved at 20 lbs., 120 °C, 1 h

  • Acid hydrolysis: 20% CH3COOH and con. H2SO4, 80–90 °C, 30 min.

 – Thickness: 0.07 mm; Tensile strength: 102.06 MPa; degraded within 35 days [51]
Passion fruit peel/CNC 28.58 23.01 36.18

  • Delignification: 2 M NaOH, 80 °C, 4 h

  • Bleaching: 4% NaOH, and 50% H2O2, 50 °C, 1 h

  • Acid hydrolysis: 52% H2SO4, 50 °C, 1 h.

 58.1 Particle size: 103–173 nm; CNC has rod-like morphology; crystallinity: 77.96%; surface charge: 25 – 22 mV [52]