Figure 1.

Isolation approaches and characterization of periosteum-derived cells (PDCs) from animal and human samples. For animals, PDCs are isolated from femur and tibia mainly using three approaches. (A) Isolated through an autograft resection and implantation surgery. Cells from the cambium layer proliferate, differentiate and migrate, forming a spongy callus. After several days, PDCs can be harvested from the callus through enzymatic digestion. (B) Isolated PDCs by bone capping with agarose. Femurs and tibias are dissected and epiphyses are capped with agarose. PDCs are liberated through enzymatic digestion and filtered through a cell strainer. (C) Isolated PDCs by placing long bones free of epiphyses, skeletal muscle and bone marrow. This approach allows PDCs to migrate from the periosteum to explant into the culture medium without any manipulation. For humans, PDCs can be obtained from the periosteum of long bones or the mandible through digesting in collagenase (D) or mincing the periosteal tissue (E).