TABLE 6.

Stages of spinal cord injury and potential targets for stem cell-based therapies.

Stages of spinal cord injury and potential targets for stem cell-based therapies	Description
Acute inflammation	After injury, immune cells infiltrate the injury site, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and reactive oxygen species are released. Stem cells target acute inflammation by modulating immune cell activity, secreting anti-inflammatory factors, and scavenging reactive oxygen species.
Demyelination	The loss of myelin sheaths around axons impairs neuronal communication and function. Stem cells target demyelination by differentiating into oligodendrocytes and producing myelin, or by secreting trophic factors that stimulate remyelination.
Axonal degeneration	Axonal degeneration can occur due to mechanical damage, inflammation, or secondary cascades. Stem cells target axonal degeneration by promoting axonal regeneration through trophic support, guidance cues, and scaffolds.
Chronic inflammation	Chronic inflammation can lead to glial scar formation, fibrosis, and neuronal loss. Stem cells target chronic inflammation by suppressing immune activation, secreting anti-fibrotic factors, and promoting tissue repair and regeneration.
Neuronal loss	Neuronal loss can occur due to direct trauma, secondary injury, or chronic degeneration. Stem cells target neuronal loss by differentiating into neurons or by promoting neuronal survival and regeneration through trophic support, neuroprotection, and synaptic plasticity.