Table 1.
Comparison of current tumor models.
| Model type | Advantages | Disadvantages | References |
| Cell model | |||
| Tumor cell lines (2D) | Low cost and easy construction; high-throughput toxicity testing and drug screening; easy for genetic manipulation. | Lack native TME; lack tumor phenotyes and heterogeneity; lack certain types of tumor. | [16,17] |
| Animal tumor models | |||
| Spontaneous mouse tumor model | Recapitulate the TME; allow systemic evaluation of therapies. | Tumor incidence rates vary greatly; limited tumor model types; low throughput and time-consuming. | [18,19] |
| Induced mouse tumor model | Have the advantages of spontaneous mouse tumor models; have a higher tumor induction rate. | Time-consuming; Tumor occurrence time and development speed vary greatly. | [20,21] |
| Genetically engineered mouse tumor model | Accurately reflect human tumors; available for studying the relationship between specific genes and tumors. | High costs, low throughput, and time-consuming; difficult to control the TME and monitor the tumors. | [22,23] |
| Tumor xenograft models | |||
| Human tumor CDX model | Human source of cancer cells; easy to operate; convenient for gene manipulation. | Require immune-deficient hosts; cannot reproduce the TME; low throughput. | [24–26] |
| PDX model | Maintain the heterogeneity of the original tumor; high consistent rate of drug response. | Require immune-deficient hosts; low tumor implantation rates; low throughput. | [26–28] |
| Hu PDX model | Provide TME similar to the human body; simulate the interaction between tumors and the immune system. | Low success rate and high cost; limited disease models. | [19,29–31] |
| PDOX model | Mimic primary tumor environment; available for studying tumor invasion and metastasis. | Operation technology is complex; time-consuming and high cost. | [32–34] |
| 3D tumor culture models | |||
| MCTS model | Low cost and easy genetic manipulation; high-throughput toxicity testing and drug screening. | Lack of native TME; poor consistency in size and uniformity; different sensitivities to drug tests. | [17,35] |
| Tumor organoid model | 3D spatial organization; preservation of genetic and epigenetic signature of derived tumor tissue; easy for genetic manipulation; high-throughput in toxicity testing and drug screening; genetic stable after long-term passage; simulate the TME. | Limited size and uniformity; lack of vascular elements; varied reproducibility; high costs; side effects of animal products such as Matrigel, BME, and FBS. | [17,36,37] |
BME: Basement membrane extract; CDX: Cell-derived xenograft; FBS: Fetal bovine serum; Hu PDX: Humanized patient-derived xenograft; MCTS: Multicellular tumor spheroids; PDOX: Patient-derived orthotopic xenograft; PDX: Patient-derived xenograft; TME: Tumor microenvironment.