Table 5. Common aggravating factors of acute HF.

Acute coronary syndrome

Arrhythmia

Uncontrolled hypertension

Non-compliance to HF drugs

Excessive salt or fluid intake

Toxic substance (e.g. alcohol, recreational drugs)

Drugs (e.g. NSAIDs, cardiotoxic chemotherapeutic agents, corticosteroids, verapamil)

Exacerbation of COPD

Pulmonary thromboembolism

Active infection

Surgery

Increased sympathetic drive, stress-related cardiomyopathy

Metabolic or hormonal derangements (e.g. adrenal, thyroid dysfunction)

Anemia

Pregnancy or peripartum abnormalities

HF = heart failure; NSAID = non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug; COPD = chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.