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. 2023 Aug 7;10:36. doi: 10.1186/s40580-023-00385-3

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — Schematic of strategies for LNP-based mRNA delivery. This diagram displays various approaches to LNP-based mRNA delivery, including: (1) Antigen presentation—delivery of mRNA encoding TAAs to be presented by antigen-presenting cells (APCs); (2) Antigen receptor—delivery of mRNA encoding CARs or TCRs for T cell activation; (3) Adjuvant—the mRNA can encode factors that activate TLR3/7/8 or STING, amplifying immune responses; (4) Protein—delivery of mRNA encoding therapeutic proteins, such as cytokines or antibodies, for direct anti-cancer effects