Table 2.
Factors identified from cross-sectional studies
| Factor | Outcome measured | Study | Method | Sample size | Study quality score (%) | Result summary |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Demographic factors | ||||||
| Gender | Swimming skills | Pratt et al. (2021) | Aquatic motor competence (swimming skills) assessed using the Aquatic Movement Protocol and compared with demographic data collected from participants | 201 | 79 | Female children demonstrated a higher number of swimming skills than male children |
| Water safety knowledge | Moran et al. (2018) | Water safety knowledge (beach safety behaviours, beach hazards, strategies to reduce risks) collected from video interviews with students and compared with demographic data obtained from their schools | 790 | 88 | No significant differences in water safety knowledge were found when analysed based on gender | |
| Peden et al. (2017) | Water safety knowledge and participant demographics collected through a national online quiz | 4215 | 75 | Female children demonstrated greater water safety knowledge than male children | ||
| Both swimming skills and water safety knowledge | Willcox-Pidgeon et al. (2021) | Swim skill and water safety knowledge data collected from national database and compared with existing records of participant demographics | 43,201 | 83 | No significant swimming skills or water safety knowledge differences were identified based on gender | |
| Combined aquatic competence | Franklin et al. (2015) | Aquatic competence level collected from a Swim and Survive program compared with demographic information from parent-completed enrolment form | 7726 | 63 | Female children demonstrated greater aquatic competence than male children | |
| Age | Swimming skills | Willcox-Pidgeon et al. (2021) | Swim skill and water safety knowledge data collected from national database and compared with existing records of participant demographics | 43,201 | 83 | Older children demonstrated a higher number of swimming skills than younger children (no p-value provided) |
| Water safety knowledge | Peden et al. (2017) | Water safety knowledge and participant demographics collected through a national online quiz | 4215 | 75 | Older children demonstrated greater water safety knowledge than younger children | |
| Combined aquatic competence | Franklin et al. (2015) | Aquatic competence level collected from a Swim and Survive program compared with demographic information from parent-completed enrolment form | 7726 | 63 | Older children demonstrated greater aquatic competence than younger children | |
| Geographic residence | Swimming skills | Willcox-Pidgeon et al. (2021) | Swim skill and water safety knowledge data collected from national database and compared with existing records of participant demographics | 43,201 | 83 | Children from metropolitan areas demonstrated a higher number of swimming skills than children from regional areas |
| Water safety knowledge | Peden et al. (2017) | Water safety knowledge and participant demographics collected through a national online quiz | 4215 | 75 | No significant differences in water safety knowledge were found when analysed by geographic residence | |
| Income/ socio-economic status | Swimming skills | Willcox-Pidgeon et al. (2021) | Swim skill and water safety knowledge data collected from national database and compared with existing records of participant demographics | 43,201 | 83 | Children from high socio-economic areas demonstrated a higher number of swimming skills than children from low socio-economic areas |
| Income/ socio-economic status | Water safety knowledge | Moran et al. (2018) | Water safety knowledge (beach safety behaviours, beach hazards, strategies to reduce risks) collected from video interviews with students and compared with demographic data obtained from their schools | 790 | 88 | Children from high socio-economic areas demonstrated greater knowledge of beach safety behaviours than children from low socio-economic areas. No significant differences for the identification of beach hazards or strategies to reduce risks were found |
| School type | Water safety knowledge | Peden et al. (2017) | Water safety knowledge and participant demographics collected through a national online quiz | 4215 | 75 | Children from private schools demonstrated greater water safety knowledge than children from non-private schools |
| Combined aquatic competence | Franklin et al. (2015) | Aquatic competence level collected from a Swim and Survive program compared with demographic information from parent-completed enrolment form | 7726 | 63 | Children from private schools demonstrated greater aquatic competence than children from non-private schools | |
| Disability/ medical condition | Combined aquatic competence | Franklin et al. (2015) | Aquatic competence level collected from a Swim and Survive program compared with demographic information from parent-completed enrolment form | 7726 | 63 | Children without a disability/ medical condition demonstrated greater aquatic competence than children with a disability/ medical condition |
| Ethnicity | Water safety knowledge | Moran et al. (2018) | Water safety knowledge (beach safety behaviours, beach hazards, strategies to reduce risks) collected from video interviews with students and compared with demographic data obtained from their schools | 790 | 88 | Children from European heritage demonstrated greater knowledge of beach safety behaviours and strategies to reduce risk than children of non-European heritage. No significant differences for identifying beach hazards were found |
| Indigeneity | Combined aquatic competence | Franklin et al. (2015) | Aquatic competence level collected from a Swim and Survive program compared with demographic information from parent-completed enrolment form | 7726 | 63 | No significant differences in aquatic competence were identified based on indigeneity |
| Background factors—aquatic experience | ||||||
| Negative prior aquatic experience | Combined aquatic competence | Peden et al. (2020) | Aquatic competence level (includes both swimming skills and water safety knowledge) collected from a Swim and Survive program compared with information from parent-completed enrolment form about child’s aquatic experience | 535 | 79 | Children without a negative prior aquatic experience demonstrated greater aquatic competence than children with a negative prior aquatic experience |
| Franklin et al. (2015) | Aquatic competence level collected from a Swim and Survive program compared with demographic information from parent-completed enrolment form | 7726 | 63 | Children without a negative prior aquatic experience demonstrated greater aquatic competence than children with a negative prior aquatic experience | ||
| Frequency of participation in aquatic activity | Combined aquatic competence | Franklin et al. (2015) | Aquatic competence level collected from a Swim and Survive program compared with demographic information from parent-completed enrolment form | 7726 | 63 | Children who swam frequently (at least once a fortnight) demonstrated greater aquatic competence than children who swam infrequently (less than once a fortnight) |
| Private swimming lessons | Combined aquatic competence | Franklin et al. (2015) | Aquatic competence level collected from a Swim and Survive program compared with demographic information from parent-completed enrolment form | 7726 | 63 | Children who attended private swimming lessons demonstrated greater aquatic competence than children who did not attend private swimming lessons |
| Visitation of aquatic locations | Combined aquatic competence | Franklin et al. (2015) | Aquatic competence level collected from a Swim and Survive program compared with demographic information from parent-completed enrolment form | 7726 | 63 | Children who had visited a public pool, a beach, or a lake in the previous 12 months demonstrated greater aquatic competence than children who had not visited these locations. No significant differences in aquatic competence for visitation of rivers |
| Parent–child agreement about child’s comfort in deep water | Swimming skills | Mercado et al. (2016) | Assessment of child’s ability to pass/fail a swimming skills test (including propelling, breath control, and front crawl). Parent–child agreement on topics (knows how to swim, perceived good swim skills, comfort in deep water) determined through parent and child-completed surveys, and compared with pass/fail data | 258 | 92 | Children who agreed with their parents that they were comfortable in deep water demonstrated a higher number of swimming skills than children who did not |
| Parent–child agreement about child’s perceived swim skills | Swimming skills | Mercado et al. (2016) | Assessment of child’s ability to pass/fail a swimming skills test (including propelling, breath control, and front crawl). Parent–child agreement on topics (knows how to swim, perceived good swim skills, comfort in deep water) determined through parent and child-completed surveys, and compared with pass/fail data | 255 | 92 | Children who agreed with their parents that they had good swim skills demonstrated a higher number of swimming skills than children who did not |
| Pool at home | Combined aquatic competence | Franklin et al. (2015) | Aquatic competence level collected from a Swim and Survive program compared with demographic information from parent-completed enrolment form | 7726 | 63 | Children with a pool at home demonstrated greater aquatic competence than children without a pool at home |
| Background factors—personal/physical characteristics | ||||||
| General motor competence | Swimming skills | Pratt et al. (2021) | Aquatic motor competence (swimming skills) assessed using the Aquatic Movement Protocol and compared with demographic data collected from participants | 201 | 79 | Children with high motor competence demonstrated a higher number of swimming skills than children with low motor competence |
| Stature/ height | Swimming skills | Pratt et al. (2021) | Aquatic motor competence (swimming skills) assessed using the Aquatic Movement Protocol and compared with demographic data collected from participants | 201 | 79 | Taller children demonstrated a higher number of swimming skills than short children |
| Body mass | Swimming skills | Pratt et al. (2021) | Aquatic motor competence (swimming skills) assessed using the Aquatic Movement Protocol and compared with demographic data collected from participants | 201 | 79 | No significant differences in swimming skills were identified when analysed by body mass |