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. 2023 Jul 26;68:1605360. doi: 10.3389/ijph.2023.1605360

TABLE 3.

Association of food insecurity at t–1 with healthcare utilization and expenditures at t, random effects Poisson and linear regression results (Korean Welfare Panel Study, South Korea, 2008–2019, 2021).

Outpatient visits Inpatient days Inpatient admissions Healthcare expenditures
IRR (95% CI) a P val. IRR (95% CI) a P val. IRR (95% CI) a P val. Adjusted β (95% CI) b P val.
Baseline model c
Severe food insecurity (t–1) 1.16 (1.14, 1.18) <0.001 1.16 (1.11, 1.20) <0.001 1.52 (1.28, 1.80) <0.001 −0.09 (−0.18, 0.00) 0.05
Moderate food insecurity (t–1) 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) 0.67 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) 0.25 1.12 (1.03, 1.21) 0.006 −0.15 (−0.19, −0.11) <0.001
Food security (t–1) Referent Referent Referent Referent
Demographic factors adjusted model d
Severe food insecurity (t–1) 1.15 (1.13, 1.17) <0.001 1.12 (1.08, 1.17) <0.001 1.41 (1.19, 1.67) <0.001 −0.05 (−0.14, 0.04) 0.27
Moderate food insecurity (t–1) 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) 0.68 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) 0.25 1.06 (0.98, 1.14) 0.16 −0.13 (−0.17, −0.10) <0.001
Food security (t–1) Referent Referent Referent Referent
Health status adjusted model e
Severe food insecurity (t–1) 1.15 (1.13, 1.17) <0.001 1.12 (1.08, 1.16) <0.001 1.30 (1.10, 1.54) 0.002 −0.14 (−0.23, −0.05) 0.003
Moderate food insecurity (t–1) 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) 0.02 0.96 (0.94, 0.98) <0.001 0.97 (0.90, 1.05) 0.50 −0.18 (−0.22, −0.15) <0.001
Food security (t–1) Referent Referent Referent Referent
SES adjusted model f
Severe food insecurity (t–1) 1.16 (1.14, 1.18) <0.001 1.24 (1.19, 1.29) <0.001 1.48 (1.25, 1.75) <0.001 0.02 (−0.07, 0.11) 0.69
Moderate food insecurity (t–1) 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) 0.81 1.04 (1.02, 1.06) <0.001 1.07 (0.99, 1.16) 0.09 −0.08 (−0.12, −0.05) <0.001
Food security (t–1) Referent Referent Referent Referent
Fully adjusted model g
Severe food insecurity (t–1) 1.14 (1.12, 1.17) <0.001 1.18 (1.13, 1.22) <0.001 1.40 (1.18, 1.65) <0.001 −0.02 (−0.11, 0.07) 0.67
Moderate food insecurity (t–1) 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) 0.02 0.99 (0.98, 1.01) 0.56 1.02 (0.94, 1.11) 0.60 −0.11 (−0.14, −0.07) <0.001
Food security (t–1) Referent Referent Referent Referent

Abbreviations: IRR, incidence rate ratio; CI, confidence interval.

a

Estimated by random effects Poisson regression.

b

Estimated by linear regression.

c

Adjusted for year fixed effects.

d

Adjusted for age, sex, educational level, marital status, number of household members, region of residence, and year fixed effects.

e

Adjusted for chronic conditions (high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, heart disease, stroke, arthritis), self-rated health, disability, and year fixed effects.

f

Adjusted for employment status, household income, and household consumption, and year fixed effects.

g

Adjusted for age, sex, educational level, marital status, number of household members, region of residence, chronic conditions (high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, heart disease, stroke, arthritis), self-rated health, employment status, household income, household consumption, and year fixed effects.