TABLE 3.
Association of food insecurity at t–1 with healthcare utilization and expenditures at t, random effects Poisson and linear regression results (Korean Welfare Panel Study, South Korea, 2008–2019, 2021).
Outpatient visits | Inpatient days | Inpatient admissions | Healthcare expenditures | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IRR (95% CI) a | P val. | IRR (95% CI) a | P val. | IRR (95% CI) a | P val. | Adjusted (95% CI) b | P val. | |
Baseline model c | ||||||||
Severe food insecurity (t–1) | 1.16 (1.14, 1.18) | <0.001 | 1.16 (1.11, 1.20) | <0.001 | 1.52 (1.28, 1.80) | <0.001 | −0.09 (−0.18, 0.00) | 0.05 |
Moderate food insecurity (t–1) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 0.67 | 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) | 0.25 | 1.12 (1.03, 1.21) | 0.006 | −0.15 (−0.19, −0.11) | <0.001 |
Food security (t–1) | Referent | Referent | Referent | Referent | ||||
Demographic factors adjusted model d | ||||||||
Severe food insecurity (t–1) | 1.15 (1.13, 1.17) | <0.001 | 1.12 (1.08, 1.17) | <0.001 | 1.41 (1.19, 1.67) | <0.001 | −0.05 (−0.14, 0.04) | 0.27 |
Moderate food insecurity (t–1) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 0.68 | 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) | 0.25 | 1.06 (0.98, 1.14) | 0.16 | −0.13 (−0.17, −0.10) | <0.001 |
Food security (t–1) | Referent | Referent | Referent | Referent | ||||
Health status adjusted model e | ||||||||
Severe food insecurity (t–1) | 1.15 (1.13, 1.17) | <0.001 | 1.12 (1.08, 1.16) | <0.001 | 1.30 (1.10, 1.54) | 0.002 | −0.14 (−0.23, −0.05) | 0.003 |
Moderate food insecurity (t–1) | 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) | 0.02 | 0.96 (0.94, 0.98) | <0.001 | 0.97 (0.90, 1.05) | 0.50 | −0.18 (−0.22, −0.15) | <0.001 |
Food security (t–1) | Referent | Referent | Referent | Referent | ||||
SES adjusted model f | ||||||||
Severe food insecurity (t–1) | 1.16 (1.14, 1.18) | <0.001 | 1.24 (1.19, 1.29) | <0.001 | 1.48 (1.25, 1.75) | <0.001 | 0.02 (−0.07, 0.11) | 0.69 |
Moderate food insecurity (t–1) | 1.00 (0.99, 1.01) | 0.81 | 1.04 (1.02, 1.06) | <0.001 | 1.07 (0.99, 1.16) | 0.09 | −0.08 (−0.12, −0.05) | <0.001 |
Food security (t–1) | Referent | Referent | Referent | Referent | ||||
Fully adjusted model g | ||||||||
Severe food insecurity (t–1) | 1.14 (1.12, 1.17) | <0.001 | 1.18 (1.13, 1.22) | <0.001 | 1.40 (1.18, 1.65) | <0.001 | −0.02 (−0.11, 0.07) | 0.67 |
Moderate food insecurity (t–1) | 0.99 (0.98, 1.00) | 0.02 | 0.99 (0.98, 1.01) | 0.56 | 1.02 (0.94, 1.11) | 0.60 | −0.11 (−0.14, −0.07) | <0.001 |
Food security (t–1) | Referent | Referent | Referent | Referent |
Abbreviations: IRR, incidence rate ratio; CI, confidence interval.
Estimated by random effects Poisson regression.
Estimated by linear regression.
Adjusted for year fixed effects.
Adjusted for age, sex, educational level, marital status, number of household members, region of residence, and year fixed effects.
Adjusted for chronic conditions (high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, heart disease, stroke, arthritis), self-rated health, disability, and year fixed effects.
Adjusted for employment status, household income, and household consumption, and year fixed effects.
Adjusted for age, sex, educational level, marital status, number of household members, region of residence, chronic conditions (high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, heart disease, stroke, arthritis), self-rated health, employment status, household income, household consumption, and year fixed effects.