Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of participants according to diabetes status and UPF quartiles (n 600) *
| T1DM (n 256) | Non-diabetic control (n 344) | Q1 (n 150) | Q2 (n 150) | Q3 (n 150) | Q4 (n 150) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Characteristics | Mean | sd or % | Mean | sd or % | P | Mean | sd or % | Mean | sd or % | Mean | sd or % | Mean | sd or % | P |
| Age (years) | 36·5 | 9·2 | 41 | 8·5 | < 0·01 | 39·2 | 9 | 39 | 9·6 | 39·6 | 8·8 | 38·5 | 8·4 | 0·78 |
| Sex (male) | 95 | 37 | 171 | 50 | 0·01 | 52 | 35 | 54 | 36 | 69 | 46 | 91 | 61 | < 0·01 |
| Race (White) | 252 | 99 | 291 | 85 | < 0·01 | 126 | 84 | 136 | 91 | 139 | 93 | 142 | 95 | 0·01 |
| Education (years) | 17·1 | 15 | 16·2 | 2·4 | 0·28 | 15·7 | 8·4 | 16·2 | 2·2 | 16·1 | 2·3 | 18·2 | 7·2 | 0·14 |
| Smoking status | 0·77 | 0·66 | ||||||||||||
| Current | 17 | 7 | 19 | 6 | 9 | 6 | 9 | 6 | 9 | 6 | 9 | 6 | ||
| Past | 53 | 20 | 77 | 23 | 32 | 21 | 41 | 27 | 29 | 19 | 28 | 19 | ||
| Never | 186 | 73 | 246 | 71 | 108 | 72 | 100 | 67 | 111 | 75 | 113 | 75 | ||
| Physical activity | 67 | 26 | 78 | 23 | 0·32 | 31 | 21 | 37 | 25 | 35 | 23 | 42 | 28 | 0·52 |
| T1DM | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | 51 | 34 | 61 | 41 | 60 | 40 | 84 | 56 | 0·01 | |
| T1DM duration (years)† | 22·6 | 8·6 | N/A | N/A | 25·0 | 9·97 | 21·9 | 8·4 | 21·5 | 8·6 | 22·5 | 7·8 | 0·06 | |
| Energy intake (kcal/d) (1 kcal = 4.184 kJ) | 2017 | 827 | 1965 | 706 | 0·41 | 1696 | 693 | 1949 | 558 | 1948 | 713 | 2355 | 912 | < 0·01 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 25·9 | 4·3 | 25·8 | 4·4 | 0·88 | 25·3 | 3·9 | 25·3 | 4·2 | 25·9 | 4·9 | 26·9 | 4·1 | < 0·01 |
| Weight (kg) | 75·3 | 15·6 | 77·2 | 16·9 | 0·16 | 72·5 | 14·7 | 73·7 | 14·8 | 76·8 | 17·3 | 82·7 | 16·7 | < 0·01 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 83·8 | 12·4 | 85·7 | 13·6 | 0·09 | 81·9 | 12·2 | 82·7 | 11·6 | 85·1 | 14·1 | 90 | 13·1 | < 0·01 |
| Obesity | 39 | 15 | 56 | 16 | 0·73 | 18 | 12 | 17 | 11 | 29 | 19 | 31 | 21 | 0·05 |
| Overweight | 134 | 52 | 183 | 53 | 0·84 | 75 | 50 | 69 | 46 | 72 | 48 | 101 | 67 | 0·01 |
| HbA1c (%) | 7·9 | 1·2 | 5·5 | 0·4 | < 0·01 | 6·2 | 1·3 | 6·3 | 1·3 | 6·5 | 1·5 | 7 | 1·7 | < 0·01 |
| Antihypertensive drug | 87 | 34 | 22 | 6 | < 0·01 | 22 | 15 | 19 | 13 | 29 | 19 | 39 | 26 | 0·02 |
| Lipid-lowering drug | 39 | 15 | 18 | 5 | < 0·01 | 6 | 4 | 8 | 5 | 14 | 9 | 29 | 19 | 0·02 |
| Unprocessed food consumption (servings/d) | 9·0 | 3·8 | 9·0 | 3·7 | 0·9 | 9·0 | 4·2 | 8·3 | 3·6 | 9·2 | 3·9 | 9·4 | 3·4 | 0·11 |
| Total UPF consumption (servings/d) | 7·59 | 3·83 | 6·5 | 3·43 | < 0·01 | 3·3 | 0·74 | 5·2 | 0·5 | 7·4 | 0·8 | 12·2 | 2·7 | < 0·01 |
UPF: ultra-processed food; Q: quartiles; T1DM: type 1 diabetes mellitus.
*
P was derived from Student’s t test or ANOVA test for continuous variables and χ2 test for categorical variables.
†For T1DM only.