Table 2.

A summary of fit statistics for multiple-group invariance tests

Model description	Comparative model	X2	df	$\mathbf{\Delta }$X2	$\mathbf{\Delta }$df	p-value
No equality constraints imposed (M1)	–	547.158	20	–	–	–
All factor loadings constrained equal (M2)	M2 vs M1	1005.86	29	458.699	9	0.000
Equal mean intercept (M3)	M3 vs M1	586.751	23	39.593	3	0.000
Equal rate of change (M4)	M4 vs M1	693.723	23	146.565	3	0.000
Equal random variance (M5)	M5 vs M1	569.571	23	22.413	3	0.000

$\mathrm{\Delta }{x}^2$ = difference in chi-square values between models; $\mathrm{\Delta }df$ = difference in the number of degrees of freedom between models; M1,…, M5 = Model 1, …, Model 5, respectively.