Table 1. African snakes and characteristics of expressed venoms [2,15–22].

Venom activity	Clinical manifestation	African snake responsible
Neurotoxicity	Local symptoms: parasthesias, neuropathic pain Systemic symptoms: Ptosis, external ophthalmoplegia, facial paralysis, paralysis of tongue, inability to open mouth, bulbar and respiratory paralysis Venom ophthalmia: pain, hyperemia, blepharitis, blepharospasm and corneal erosions	Elapids (e.g. Cobras, Rinkals, Mambas); Berg adder and Peringuey’s adder, selected Bothrops spp.
Myotoxicity	Local symptoms: Swelling /Oedema, subcutaneous bleed Systemic symptoms: Trismus, stiff painful muscles, myoglobinuria, rhabdomyolysis /muscle necrosis	Sea snake, European adder (Vipera berus), some Viperidae snake bites (selected Bothrops spp.)
Cardiotoxicity	Hypotension, cardiogenic shock, arrhythmias with sinus node dysfunction, ECG abnormalities, raised serum/cardiac enzymes with acute myocardial infarction and/ or ischaemia, myocarditis and acute pulmonary oedema	Puff Adder and other giant Bitis species, saw scaled vipers (Echis ocellatus)
Haemorrhagic	Local symptoms: painful progressive swelling and tissue destruction Systemic symptoms: Spontaneous systemic haemorrhage (gums, gut, brain, etc) associated with venom-induced consumption coagulopathy	Saw-scaled vipers (Echis ocellatus), puff adder and other large Bitis species, boomslang, Forest vine snake (Thelotornis kirtlandii)
Procoagulant	Coagulopathy: incoagulable blood with haematemesis and persistent bleeding from trauma sites and recent wounds	Saw-scaled vipers, boomslang (Dispholidus typus), Forest vine snake (Thelotornis kirtlandii)
Cytotoxicity	Massive local swelling, blistering, necrosis: extravasation of blood and plasma potentially causing hypovolaemia	Puff adder and other large Bitis species, saw-scaled vipers, spitting cobras