Fig. 5.

Biomaterials improve energy metabolism for bone repair. A) Bioenergetic regulation and signaling during osteoblast differentiation. Reproduced and adapted with permission [139]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. B) Bioenergetically active material scaffolds that accelerate bone formation by degradation-mediated increases in mitochondrial membrane potential. Reproduced and adapted with permission [87]. Copyright 2020, American Association for the Advancement of Science. C) Mg²⁺ energy drive improved low-dose BMP-2-induced bone regeneration. Reproduced and adapted with permission [88]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier. D) Citrate-based biomaterials support osteogenic differentiation by providing degradation products during degradation and regulating the metabolic pathway of energy production. Reproduced and adapted with permission [89]. Copyright 2018, National Academy of Sciences.