. 2023 Jul 26;25:e43219. doi: 10.2196/43219

Table 3.

Study results (categorized by the topic of intervention development)^a.

Study (author, year)		Outcomes of interest	Finding notes
Coparenting and partner support
	Pilkington et al [69], 2017	System quality, content quality, suggestions for website improvement, and potential barriers to visiting the website	>250 comments provided to inform changes to the intervention such as simplifying the language and structure of content and increasing the number of images. Barriers such as lack of time and smartphone incompatibility were identified.
	Firouzan et al [70], 2020	Knowledge and attitudes about participation in perinatal care ^b	N/A^c
	Marcell et al [71], 2021	Primary: infant knowledge, beliefs, self-efficacy, coparenting; secondary: partner relationship quality, infant care and engagement, time spent with infant, safe sleep, injury prevention care	N/A (protocol)
Parenting coping, satisfaction, and self-efficacy
	Hudson et al [72], 2003	Parenting self-efficacy, parenting satisfaction, and satisfaction with the intervention	N/A
	Salonen et al [73], 2008	Parenting satisfaction and parenting self-efficacy	Found fathers experienced lowest self-efficacy related to the infant’s nutritional recommendations, day rhythm and sleep, normal development, and infant’s cues and behavior.
	Salonen et al [74], 2011	Parenting satisfaction (primary) and self-efficacy (secondary)	Parenting self-efficacy among all groups of fathers increased at 6 to 8 weeks postpartum.
	Feinberg et al [75], 2020	Parental efficacy and depression and relationship conflict, couples’ conflict, resolution style and child sadness, child distress to limitations, and child soothability	N/A
Parenting skills and knowledge
	Fletcher et al [76], 2008	Intervention usability, satisfaction, and uptake	≥95% agreed or strongly agreed that the package gave new information, that they intend to discuss the information with their partner, and that they are satisfied with the quality of the information; 78% agreed or strongly agreed that they did something differently because of this information^d.
	Fletcher et al [77], 2016	Content clarity, usefulness, suitability, feasibility, and acceptability of the messages	90% indicated that the messages were easily understood and useful, and all participants easily identified which messages were targeted at fathers, mothers, or both. All transmitted messages were read by fathers and 74% felt that they were acceptable. Preferences toward messages that provided specific prompts and advice on ways to connect with and support their partner. Benefits also included prompting of discussions with their partners^d.
	Fletcher et al [78], 2017	Intervention uptake, user engagement, acceptability, and psychological distress (mood tracker)	The most clicked link by fathers was “Becoming a dad: a big adjustment,” which received 22% (14/65) of all clicks, followed by “talking to your baby” (9/65, 14%). Out of those who responded to the Mood Tracker questions, half responded as “Cool” (47%) whereas 15% responded as “Shaky.” 87% of fathers remained engaged with the intervention, and interviews suggested that fathers were positive about their experience with the intervention^d.
	Fletcher et al [79], 2017	Intervention uptake, user engagement and acceptability, psychological distress	63.1% clicked on at least one of the links provided. Links with the highest click rates were the Kidsafe NSW^e home safety checklist with 72.7%, Better Health’s “newborn screening” link at a 57.1% click rate, and the “alcohol pregnancy partner support” link from British Columbia’s Centre of Excellence for Women’s Health at a 50% click rate^d.
	Mackert et al [80], 2017	Acceptability (general attitudes, actions, navigational issues, and technical trouble while testing out the intervention)	Participants agreed that it is important to know about pregnancy-related health information and expressed willingness to be involved in pregnancy but also reported feeling disconnected in the process. The theme of support for pregnant individuals emerged. Most participants (21/23, 91%) were engaged with the app, and the most clicked content was nutrition, followed by financial preparation^d.
	Venegas et al [81], 2019	Study feasibility, acceptability of the video, and preliminary effectiveness (assessed by the use of any of the 3 pain management strategies—breastfeeding, skin-to-skin care, or sucrose) during NBS^f	All parents in the intervention group viewed the full video and reported an intention to recommend the video to other parents. All but 2 parents reported that the video was the right length. Participants in the intervention group reported intentions to use or advocate for one of the pain management strategies. However, no significant difference between groups regarding the percentage of parents who used at least one pain management strategy^d.
	Fletcher et al [82], 2019	Ratings on importance, clarity, evidence base, and the acceptability rating of intervention messages for mothers and fathers from EAG^g members and comments from the EAG group	For importance, clarity, evidence base, and acceptability, 81% of the messages met the requirement for fathers, according to the EAG. The EAG group provided feedback on the issues of grammar, the possibility of offending some individuals, and consideration of different relationship types^d.
	Fletcher et al [83], 2019	Tested mechanisms of change (not outcomes of the intervention)—how it helped the men, specifically with respect to, becoming a father, their relationship with their infant, and their relationship with their partner	4 structural features identified—synced information, normalizing, prompts to interact and reflect, safety net, and 5 psychological processes identified—knowledge construction, confidence, ability to cope, role orientation, and feelings of connectedness.
	Fletcher et al [84], 2020	Uptake, user engagement, and acceptability	34.8% of fathers clicked on the website links in the messages; 25% clicked on the Mood Tracker links; 93% (15/16) were satisfied with the message frequency. Participants reported effects including increased knowledge about and interaction with their baby, normalization, and effective support for their partner^h.
	Lanning et al [85], 2021	Qualitative assessment for identifying themes from the father’s experience partaking in this program.	Fathers found the messages to be helpful in the following areas during the interview: increased awareness that babies thrive on their connection with them, understanding the paternal role in the perinatal period, and that having an understanding via information received led to conversation and action.
	Shorey et al [86], 2021	Qualitative feedback assessing features, functionality, usability, and content accuracy	Pilot testing revealed technological and user issues, including web browser and app incompatibility, a lack of notifications, and limited search engine capabilityⁱ.
	Hägi-Pedersen et al [87], 2021	Mothers’ and fathers’ experiences of the whole intervention trajectory	Interviews revealed an overarching theme of “oscillating between feeling confident in caring for the infant on your own and needing support from others.”
	Kavanagh et al [88], 2021	Program engagement and satisfaction, parenting efficacy (including putting baby to sleep), depression, quality of life, relationship satisfaction, social support, and self-efficacy for support provisionⁱ	Satisfaction with programs was high. However, only 20.9% of fathers accessed their assigned program more than once; 12.9% of fathers set a goal, and fathers accessed an average of 1 module. Partners experienced less relationship decline in the treatment group compared with the control group^h,i.
Infant feeding or breastfeeding
	White et al [39], 2016	Acceptability of the engagement strategies, appropriateness of the proposed approach and content, and mobile health app rating	Six areas for improvement in functionality and usability identified including text being too small, lack of clarity about how the points system worked, and the need for an important icon to be more prominent. The addition of a tutorial, options for users to post their own questions, and personalization of avatars were suggested.
	Abbass-Dick et al [89], 2017	Breastfeeding self-efficacy, breastfeeding knowledge, infant feeding attitudes, and perception of coparenting relationship and prototype usability	38% of fathers spent over 1 h reviewing the eHealth resource, and 67% of fathers strongly agreed that the resource was excellent overall^d.
	White et al [90], 2018	Seek and offer support, social connection, and sharing experiences.	Themes for mobile app use included seeking and offering support, social connection, informational support provision, and sharing experiences.
	White et al [91], 2019	Participant app use and technology (software monitoring)^d	Push notifications and interest in what other fathers had posted in the forum were the main motivators for mobile app use. Fathers used the app most while their partners were still pregnant and in the weeks immediately after the birth of their baby. At 6 weeks postpartum, approximately one-third of fathers still using the app said that the gamification elements were encouraging mobile app use.
	Abbass-Dick et al [92], 2020	Exclusive breastfeeding (primary) and breastfeeding duration, problems, self-efficacy, knowledge, partner support, coparenting, infant feeding attitude, intervention and breastfeeding resource use, and supplementation, satisfaction with an eHealth resource (secondary).	Both groups reported using generally available breastfeeding resources. Websites were used most often and rated as the most helpful. Breastfeeding partner support and coparenting scores were higher in the control group compared with the intervention group. For attitude and knowledge, there were no group differences at any follow-up time point, but scores increased more over time for the intervention group compared with the control group. Open-ended questions on satisfaction with the intervention were used to identify 5 themesⁱ.
	Scott et al [93], 2021	Breastfeeding duration (primary) and age of formula or complementary food introduction, breastfeeding self-efficacy, and partner postpartum support (secondary)	N/A
Parenting involvement
	Rhoads et al [94], 2015	Usability (number of logins to the web camera system, time spent viewing neonates—total number of minutes viewed, maximum time viewed in 1 login)	The mean number of logins for mothers was significantly greater than that for fathers (P=.03). There was no significant difference in mean total viewing time or maximum viewing time in 1 session.
	Bonifacio et al [95], 2020	Adherence to intervention and partner attendance during prenatal care and presence at birth	Partner adherence to the program was 53.4%^h.
Injury prevention
	Yu et al [96], 2017	Smoking cessation and secondhand smoking exposure for mothers	N/A
Mental health and well-being
	Da Costa et al [46], 2017	Barriers to seeking help, men’s informational needs, user- and web-related factors associated with visiting a father-focused website	Fathers indicated wanting information on parenting and infant care, supporting, and improving the relationship with their partner, work-life balance, improving sleep, and managing stress. Important features of the website included it being personally relevant, credible, effective, and an easy navigation structure. Factors important for continued use were usefulness, readability, and being free of charge.
	Missler et al [97], 2020	Parenting stress (primary) and depression, anxiety, parental well-being (satisfaction with the parenting role, parenting self-efficacy, and sleep), parent-infant bonding, breastfeeding, room-sharing, infant crying, feeding, and sleeping (secondary)	N/A
	Zhang et al [98], 2021	Anxiety, depression, and quality of life	N/A
Parent-child relationship
	Benzies et al [99], 2013	Parent-child interaction, parental stress, and usability (number of booster dose videos viewed)	Fathers reviewed the videos in the web-based portal from 0 to 16 times; 71% of the fathers accessed at least 1 video over the 4 months of the study.
	Manav et al [100], 2021	Parent-infant attachment	Although attachment levels for fathers in both groups improved significantly over time, there were no significant differences between groups. There were significant effects on maternal attachment.
	Doaltabadi and Amiri-Farahani [101], 2021	Father-infant attachment	N/A
	Park and Bang [102], 2022	Knowledge of infant development, father-infant interactions, and father-infant attachment	N/A
Child health
	Whooten et al [103], 2021	Prevalence of rapid infant weight gain (primary), WFL^j, and prevalence of overweight. Maternal and paternal health behaviors, infant health behaviors, social and emotional well-being, family functioning, infant care, resource use, and COVID-19 pandemic impact	N/A
NICU^k care
	Garfield et al [104], 2016	Parenting self-efficacy (primary) and preparedness for discharge and length of stay (secondary)	Significant within-group improvements in parenting self-efficacy but between-group differences were only significant when app use was accounted for in supplementary analysesⁱ.
	Giuseppe et al [105], 2022	Satisfaction with adequate and timely information about the baby’s condition, with communication and collaboration with the health care team, and related to privacy and confidentiality, as well as parental stress (parental role alteration, infant appearance, and NICU environment)	Findings were mixed as statistics were provided for individual items of the scales rather than composite scores. Two out of 3 items related to satisfaction with communication and collaboration and 1 out of 3 items related to privacy showed that the FCC control group was better than the digital intervention. For the parental stressor scale, 11 out of 21 items showed that the FCC^l control was better than the T-FCC^m intervention, whereas 1 out of 21 items showed that the T-FCC intervention was better. Mothers reported more stress related to seeing tubes and IVsⁿ in their baby than fathersⁱ.

^aArticles are grouped by primary outcomes. However, many papers include outcomes that fit in various categories.

^bOutcomes of interest in italics were found to be statistically significant. Finding notes provide additional detail when applicable and informative.

^cN/A: not applicable.

^dA favorable rating of intervention usefulness, satisfaction, and uptake based on results.

^eNSW: New South Wales.

^fNBS: newborn screening.

^gEAG: expert advisory group.

^hAn unfavorable rating of intervention usefulness, satisfaction, and uptake based on results.

ⁱMother and father dyads combined in reporting.

^jWFL: weight-for-length.

^kNICU: neonatal intensive care unit.

^lFCC: family-centered care.

^mT-FCC: telematic–family-centered care.

ⁿIV: intravenous.