Table 3.
Estimated Fixed Effects for Depressive Symptoms Based on Hierarchical Generalized Linear Models
| Explanatory variables | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Coefficient (SE) | Coefficient (SE) | Coefficient (SE) | |
| Intercept | −0.296 (0.060)*** | −0.325 (0.061)*** | −0.325 (0.061)*** |
| Changes in living arrangements | |||
| Continuous coresidence (ref.) | |||
| Continuously lived alone | 0.219 (0.048)*** | 0.525 (0.120)*** | 0.529 (0.116)*** |
| Started living alone | 0.358 (0.073)*** | 0.662 (0.155)** | 0.648 (0.162)*** |
| Started coresidence | 0.142 (0.119) | 0.587 (0.278)* | 0.602 (0.262)* |
| Gender: Female | 0.305 (0.036)*** | 0.347 (0.037)*** | 0.348 (0.037)*** |
| Level of urbanization | −0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) | 0.000 (0.001) |
| Period: 1990 (ref.) | |||
| 2000 | 0.131 (0.053)* | 0.141 (0.057)* | 0.139 (0.057)* |
| 2015 | 0.398 (0.056)*** | 0.436 (0.059)*** | 0.434 (0.059)*** |
| Cross-level interactions | |||
| Continuously lived alone | |||
| × Female | – | −0.330 (0.104)** | −0.336 (0.104)** |
| × Urbanization | – | −0.002 (0.001)* | −0.007 (0.002)** |
| × Period 2000 | – | −0.033 (0.100) | −0.035 (0.100) |
| × Period 2015 | – | −0.283 (0.121)* | −0.268 (0.121)* |
| × Female × urbanization | – | 0.005 (0.002)* | |
| Started living alone | |||
| × Female | – | −0.281 (0.153) | −0.257 (0.165) |
| × Urbanization | – | −0.002 (0.002) | −0.005 (0.003) |
| × Period 2000 | – | −0.155 (0.155) | −0.172 (0.155) |
| × Period 2015 | – | −0.300 (0.163) | −0.313 (0.163) |
| × Female × urbanization | – | 0.005 (0.004) | |
| Started coresidence | |||
| × Female | – | −0.686 (0.240)** | −0.709 (0.232)** |
| × Urbanization | – | −0.003 (0.003) | −0.002 (0.004) |
| × Period 2000 | – | 0.155 (0.246) | 0.165 (0.240) |
| × Period 2015 | – | 0.113 (0.389) | 0.119 (0.391) |
| × Female × urbanization | – | −0.001 (0.006) | |
| Random effects | Variance component | Variance component | Variance component |
| Intercept, Level-2 residuals | 0.589*** | 0.586*** | 0.587*** |
| Intercept, Level-3 residuals | 0.188*** | 0.187*** | 0.188*** |
Notes: SE = robust standard errors. Controlled for Level-1 covariates at t − 1 (age, income, working status, functional limitations, self-rated health, frequency of contact with children living apart, frequency of meeting friends and neighbors, and depressive symptoms), changes in child contact from t − 1 to t, and Level-2 covariates (education and drop-out status). Noncategorical explanatory variables were centered around the grand mean.
p < .10, *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.