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Protocell models. (a) Protocell model of a self-replicating vesicle under a non-equilibrium condition proposed by Szostak et al. [4]. (b) Von Neumann's self-reproducing automaton (self-replicating machine). A: universal constructor. B: Copier. C: Controller. ID: Instruction tape. D: Hardware including A, B and C. E: Software. Image adapted from [6]. Copyright 2011 National Academy of Sciences.
